It’s not only incredible because of the view but also because the image managed to capture.

7 simultaneous volcanic eruptions.

6 of which are happening on the island of Java – the most populated island in the world.

As a somewhat pale European, I clearly remember seeing my first Volcanic Eruption.

It was fascinating.

And yet nothing incredible. From where I was standing it looked like not much more than a very big smoking chimney.

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And yet it was much more than that.

Following a number of earthquakes and seismic activity on 30th of September 2017

122,500 people were evacuated from their homes surrounding the Agung volcano in Bali.

The Indonesian National Disaster Management Authority declared a 12-kilometer exclusion zone

As the eruption intensified over the next week two of the local airports were temporarily shut down.

The silly traveler in me said this was great – Stuck on an island during a volcanic Eruption – what more could you want from a holiday?

Unsurprisingly my mother didn’t agree. Leave now she said.

As a good mother, she was overestimating the danger.

The only casualty was Bali’s tourist industry which apparently suffered a brief 30% decline.

My mother just like most westerners would never under any circumstance live next to an active volcano.

Who in their right mind would do that?

The Republic of Indonesia

is a country in Southeast Asia between the Indian and Pacific oceans.

It consists of over 17,000 islands

And it is the world’s largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at 1,904,569 square kilometers. Making it a tiny bit smaller than Mexico.

And With over 275 million people, Indonesia is the world’s fourth-most populous country.

It contains the island of Java the home to more than half of the country’s population.

Indonesia has the most volcanoes of any country in the world

At least 130 of them are active as a result Volcanoes are one of the most prevalent natural disasters in the country.

The most active of Volcanoes are Kelut and Mount Merapi both of which are located on the island of Java.

Over 350 thousand people live within 10 kilometers of Kelud

And Merapi is located in one of the most densely populated parts of Java with over 11,000 people living just on its slopes.

The perilous future of living next to these giants does not trouble the locals one bit because they know their history.

Indeed Indonesians are used to calamity.

For almost 60 years, since independence, Indonesia has lurched from one disaster to another, never quite recovering before the next one hits:

Earthquakes, floods, and volcanic eruptions for the most part, and a good deal of human-induced upheaval as well, in the shape of revolution, rebellion and retribution.

They have become stoic to a fault, but also jaded and despondent as there isn’t much that they can do about it.

In 1815, the giant eruption of Mount Tambora, a stratovolcano had such a large effect on the climate that the following year, in Europe was known as the year without summer.

Some 40 km cubed of ash were produced as a result of the eruption
An Estimated 90,000 people were killed as a result of about 10,000 directly from the eruption and about 80,000 from crop loss and famine.

And in 1883 you had the catastrophic eruption of Krakatoa, a volcanic island in Lampung, the resulting tsunamis killed about 36,000 people, and approximately two-thirds of the original island was destroyed.

And this is the incredible Lake Toba.

Its about 100 kilometers (62 miles) long, 30 kilometers (19 mi) wide, and up to 505 meters (1,657 ft) deep. It is the largest lake in Indonesia and the largest volcanic lake in the world.

It is the site of a supervolcanic eruption that occurred some 69,000 to 77,000 years ago

The Largest-known explosive eruption on Earth in the last 25 million years.

It has been accepted that the eruption led to a volcanic winter with a worldwide decrease in temperature between 3 to 5 °C (5.4 to 9.0 °F), and up to 15 °C (27 °F) in higher latitudes.

And Additional studies in Lake Malawi in East Africa have shown significant amounts of ash being deposited from the Toba Caldera eruptions

That is a distance of over 7 thousand 2 hundred kilometers.

Yet knowing the dangers people choose to live so close and have remarkably little fear.

The USA with a total of about 169 active volcanoes has only a few thousand people actually live near. In part because most of them are situated in Alaska.

By comparison in Indonesia, it is estimated that as many as 10 million people live next to active volcanoes.

The hard truth is that most often people stay because they have little or no choice.

For agricultural communities developing on Volcanic land can be very rewarding.

Most people who live in these zones are very aware of the dangers but to earn a living they must stay put.

And this doesn’t go just for Volcanoes but for areas prone to tsunamis and flooding.

Coasts and river flood plains are good for fishing and farming while valley and volcanic soils are fertile.

But there is also a cultural and religious aspect that helps the population accept their predicament.

People living close to volcanoes usually have rituals to worship their volcanic masters.
Most of Indonesia’s volcanoes have spiritual significance to one group of people or another.

Nearly everyone has a myth and supernatural being associated with it. Many are honored with festivals and offerings by local people.

Being Muslim has not stopped the Javanese from practicing volcano worship.

In some areas, people are openly willing to sacrifice safety in return for a volcanic reward.

Old beliefs like

The volcano gives you everything and the volcano takes it back

This sort of reasoning gives the people additional fortitude to face danger and simply accept risks rather than run.

Volcanoes stand at the heart of a complicated set of mystical beliefs that grip millions of Indonesians

Their peaks attract holy men and pilgrims.

Their eruptions are meant to predict political change and social upheaval.

You might say that in Indonesia, volcanoes are a cultural cauldron in which mysticism, modern life, Islam, and other religions mix.

In Java, there is a ritual known as Yadnya Kasada of the Tenggerese people – an ethnic subgroup of the Javanese.
The ritual serves as a way of expressing appreciation to their gods, whom they believe have granted them with blessings, abundance, and welfare.

The Tenggerese live in some sixty villages surrounding the Tengger mountains including the ever active Mount Bromo
The origin of this festival is a legend that dates back to the fall of the Majapahit kingdom.
Then the princess of the kingdom and her husband Roro Anteng took refuge in the upper slopes of Mount Bromo.

The couple and their followers later settled in the Tengger mountains and ruled the region

Under their leadership, Tenngerese people settled and began to flourish, but the couple was not happy as they remained childless after many years of marriage.
Therefore, they meditated atop Mount Bromo, beseeching the mountain gods for assistance.
The gods granted them 24 children on the condition that the 25th child must be thrown into the volcano as human sacrifice.
Bargain…. I guess?
The gods’ request was observed, and so the tradition of offering sacrifices thrown into the volcano to appease the deities continues until today, but, of course, with no sacrifices of humans.
chickens, goats and vegetables are accepted as well as cash.

Often locals clamber down into the crater, to retrieve the sacrificed goods in daring rescue attempts trying to stop the items from falling into the crater.

This is in fact encouraged as its meant to bring good luck.

Unsurprisingly Yadnya Kasada brings in thousands of tourists each July who come for the spectacle and the national park around it is one of the most visited attractions in Java.

So given the overal prevalence and acceptance of life near volcanoes. They do not seem to be a significant factor when it comes to peoples choices about where they live at all.
A 2014 study from Princeton University looked at migration between provinces in Indonesia.

They found temperature and precipitation to be important factors that promoted migration.

Natural disasters on the other hand such as tsunamis volcanoes and earthquakes were not statistically significant.

And the people who had been relocated due to natural disasters almost always came back as soon as the calamities were over.

The data was collected by following some 7000 thousand families where the researchers would call them every few years and ask about where and why they moved.

Still as often is the case people need help when calamities do arise.

And understandign just how unwilling people are to abandon their homes because its their livelihood is important.

Especially when they have families to feed.

Often during forced evacuations livestock owners will sneak back to their homes in order to feed their animals even duing eruptions.

For this reason the Indonesia government has incorporated evacuation plans for livestock

In Indonesia its simply impossible to move everyone away from danger and that is why robust evacuation plans such as these are needed in order to convince the most superstitious and follhardy to evacuate.

Volcanoes and various calamities also play a direct role in Politics

As it’s a given that human folly can trigger natural disasters.

Eruptions, earthquakes, even a toppling tree, have long been regarded as cosmic votes of no-confidence—a fact which the country’s former president, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, is painfully aware of.

Two months after the president’s inauguration in October 2004, an earthquake and tsunami struck Aceh Province on Sumatra, claiming 170,000 lives.

A quake hit Sumatra three months later, killing perhaps 1,000.

Then Mount Talang erupted, forcing thousands of villagers to flee their homes.

This then prompted a chain text message imploring Yudhoyono to perform a ritual to stop the calamities. “Mr. President,” it read, “please sacrifice 1,000 goats.”

Yudhoyono publicly refused saying “Even if I sacrificed a thousand goats,” he announced, “disasters in Indonesia will not end”

Many following calamities were attribute to the president.

In Indonesia it seems nature is still perceived as a living entity with the capacity and inclination to affect the lives of mortals.
And it chooses your destiny

I’m curious are you from Indonesia? Do you find that many of your peers or the older generations still hold such beliefs? Leave a comment

A Twitter video from Russian media company ‘Real Time’ displays footage of a harrowing refuge migration in late July of 2021. 

345 ethnic Kyrgyz, with a herd of 4,000 livestock, arrive at the Tajik border after traversing rugged landscapes from their Afghan homeland.

 They are a small Ismaili Shia minority from a country that is predominantly Shi’ite, their customs and beliefs are especially at risk of persecution by the Taliban. 

And so only days before their region was brought under Taliban control, the group departed on a grueling journey north in an attempt to escape. 

Infant mortalities were reported during the trip, and many adults became stricken with covid. 

When they first arrived at the Tajik border, they were allowed entry and taken to a hospital in the Badakhshan province for treatment.

At the medical facility, they saw injured fighters, covered in blood, seeking medical help after fighting in the homeland they had just escaped. 

Amidst such devastation, the Russian video unexpectedly shifts tone.

Despite efforts from the nation of Kyrgyzstan to offer the group asylum, it states that the ethnically Kyrgyz nomads headed back to Afghanistan. 

A Tajik press release formally lays out the movement of the group, describing the aid services offered as temporary, and diplomatically concludes with a reaffirmation of security that –  “The situation on the indicated sections of the state border of Tajikistan and Afghanistan is under the control of Tajik border guards,”

Meanwhile, the Kyrgyz government states that pleas for a safe passage and an interpreter to accompany the group across Tajikistan were never granted. 

In truth, the refugees did not depart back due to hearing notions of security or a yearning for home; rather they did not have any other choice. 

The predicament suggests larger foreign powers are at play – 

Russia militarizes the Tajik border and has opposed accepting refugees into Central Asia.

Such an event raises the question: why was an ethnically Kyrgyz group involved in a refugee deadlock while fleeing Afghanistan?

For an explanation, let’s dive into their homeland. 

A peculiar geographical region, historically at the junction of empirical conflict for centuries: the Wahkan corridor. 

A peninsula-shaped land border – the corridor juts out 350 kilometers east out of mainland Afghanistan.

Its northern frontier is formed by the Panj and Pamir rivers, which both cut a valley split with Tajikistan.

Its southern boundary is a series of inaccessible steep peaks along the Durand Line, the border with Pakistan. 

Three of Asia’s prominent mountain ranges converge here to form the Pamir Knot: the Karkakoram’s to the east, the Pamirs to the north, and the Hindu Kush to the south.

Its inhabitants are a diverse array of ethnic minorities; Farsi-speaking Pamirs, Tajiks, the aforementioned Kyrgyz, and the Wakhi, an Iranian minority who had inhabited the region for 2,500 years.

Such a fractured composition of people reflects its history as a tumultuous junction at the remote inner core of Asia.

 With the Qing dynasty’s realm of control historically terminating at its Eastern edge, the area became a front line for expanding Russian and British powers in the 19th century.

The delineation of modern-day Afghanistan between these two empires became known as the Great Game.

The British feared that the Russian empire would extend southward into their possessions of India and Pakistan, 

so they waged a series of wars and diplomatic strategies to blockade influence in Afghanistan. 

Their first 1839 intervention failed, and became known as the ‘Disaster in Afghanistan’

It was The First Anglo-Afghan War

The Bārakzay clan became the ruling dynasty of Afghanistan, with its most powerful member, Dōst Moḥammad Khan becoming its leader

Dost was forced to balance his country between the two great powers.

 The British, feeling that Dōst was either hostile to them or unable to resist Russian incursion moved to take a direct role in Afghan affairs. 

But not unlike the recent war in which the United Stated Found itself in – the British while managing to take over some of the main cities could not conquer the country. 

Insurrections, rebellions, and the land itself was against them. They had to pull out. 

34 years later in 1873, Russian and British diplomats met to draft boundaries of their possible expansion.

Although much of the region was unexplored by their scouts, and local governments were uninvolved, it was the first semblance of Afghanistan’s modern northern boundary.

The Wakhan, hardly populated or mapped, was also added to the Afghan state. Its easternmost boundaries remained indeterminate. 

 Only 5 years later, Russia sent an unprompted convoy to Kabul, hoping to negotiate more land.

When the British attempted to do the same, their troops were blocked at Kyber Pass on the Afghan-Pakistan border.

They quickly launched an offensive to retaliate, which heated into the Second-Anglo Afghan war.

The British won the conflict and installed an Emir under their influence. 

Although Afghanistan did not become their colonial possession, they made sure to align its foreign policy southward, conducting trade with South Asia.

Despite the British’s staked influence in the mainland of Afghanistan, the Wakhan still remained a largely unexplored frontier by European powers. 

The local people easily migrated between hypothetical boundaries, unaware of the empirical chess-play encompassing their land.

Utilizing this to their advantage, the Afghan Emir stealthily occupied territory deemed Russian by agreement. 

When Russian scout parties explored these distant reaches, they discovered their drafted claims were not enforced. 

A British and Russian commission was sent to the area in 1895 to determine its outermost boundaries with finality. 

They discovered that the immense mountain ranges enclosing the Wahkan corridor southward were impassable.

 It could not be a viable route of expansion from one empire to the other. 

Therefore a perfect barrier was found: a buffer between two empires unknowingly entrapping a population.

Removed from its adhered nation, and even more so from the rest of the world. 

To this day the lifestyle in the region remains unchanged; pastoral and remote. 

Following the Soviet invasion of 1979, it remained a cut-off safe haven from the strife of the rest of the nation.

 Yet these decades of peace have come to an end. An unmarked van of Taliban fighters arrived in the Wahkan in late July of 2021.

Despite official videos and pictures of the Taliban’s arrival showing a calm takeover, an anonymous source from the Wakhan reports otherwise 

“When the Taliban arrived the Afghan forces escaped to Tajikistan, and the local people hid in their homes.”

 We have been in hiding for weeks. People can’t continue like this,” they said.

The supremacy of foreign powers occupies the minds of the locals.

Just as with the Great Game of the 19th century, the population is at mercy of decisions made in capitals thousands of miles away. 

“People talk about the US as committing treachery against democracy because the US betrayed the Afghans to the Taliban. But  All of the people think China is a big partner of the Taliban,”

 the anonymous source added. They wished to remain unnamed due to fear of 

persecution. 

As Those who show aggression, or speak out against the Taliban are tortured. 

After decades of peace in the region, the Taliban are persecuting Shi’ite minorities.

British Viceroy of India Lord Curzon once famously remarked 

“We do not want to occupy it, but we also cannot afford to see it occupied by our foes.”

Such a mentality has pervaded foreign involvement in Afghanistan. 

An area famously interlinked as a hotbed; home to proxy wars, internal conflicts, and international influences. 

As discovered by international intel and reinforced by the anonymous source, a new global superpower is imposing its stake in that very manner.

The Wakhan corridor connects to China by the Wakjir pass. Although its lofty elevation of nearly 5,000 meters gives hint to the ruggedness of the area, it was used as a route of the Silk Road for 2,000 years.

 Marco Polo was said to have crossed it on the way to China. 

Jesuit priests traversed eastward, and Buddhist monks westward.

 A sizeable number of British explorers, including Lord Curzon himself, navigated it to scout their colonial claims. 

When Mao Zedong swept over China with communism, he sealed off entry to the pass and turned the door at the end of the corridor into a dead end.

Up to this day, there is no road, only washed-out paths navigable during the summer.

 At 48 miles long, it is a peculiar land border between Afghanistan and China, separated by a 3.5 hour time difference, the largest in the world. 

Recently, Chinese troops have trickled across the border for the first time in decades. 

Joint Afghan- Chinese military exercises have been seen in the area.

As part of an initiative to expand mining and build infrastructure, the construction of a road has begun in the Wakhan Corridor. 

The strategic importance of the pass is becoming apparent once more, and China holds it as a choke point.

In 2009, Obama approached China inquiring if the pass could be used as an entry point for US troops into Afghanistan. 

China declined. 

The topography of the region continues to dictate warfare. 

For local populations, the effects of Chinese development could be devastating  

A highway utilized by the Taliban would expedite persecution, and natural resource exploitation would destroy their nomadic lifestyle. 

As is the case for many of the Chinese Belt & Road projects, the profits would not be redistributed among the local government.

The Kyrgyz of the Wakhan are no strangers to geopolitical rescrambling.

They had arrived in the Wakhan corridor fleeing the Soviets shortly after the Russian revolution. 

When communist conflict encroached on their land once more during the Afghan Saur Revolution, many fled to Pakistan. 

But Not all were granted refugee status.

Life at the ‘roof of the world’ is tough simply because of the elements of nature. 

Wintertime temperatures reach -40. 

Access to clean drinking water is sparse. Infant mortality, disease, and malnutrition are rampant.

Every time there is an alteration of a foreign power, the hardships worsen even further.

Living a tumultuous past, and braced for an uncertain future, one takeaway from the Wakhan corridor is clear: Empirical tyranny has never gone away.

Clearly marked on any map as it is the capital of Primorsky Kry; Vladivsotok sits on the very edge of mainland Russia.

It is about 6400 kilometers east of Moscow and only about 6000 kilometers north of the northernmost islands of Australia. Far closer are the capitals of North and South Korea; As it’s just 680km southwest to Pyongyang and 740 to Seoul respectively.

But while its neighbors such as Seoul harbor almost 10 million people Vladivostok itself is only the 27th largest city in Russia with a very European-sized population of about 600 thousand.

While this may make Vladivostok sound remote it is in fact the largest port in the Far East Region of Russia making it an invaluable asset with an annual throughput of 10 million tons.

The official symbols of the city are a tiger, hills, bridges, the Sea of Japan, and the Pacific fleet.

While One of the most well-known unofficial symbols is Zelyony Ugol (Green Corner), the largest market for used Japanese cars in Russia which has played an important role in the economy of the city ever since the break up of the Soviet Union.

Vladivostok is also the final destination of the famous Trans Siberian Railway which connects most of the major cities of Russia creating the world’s longest railway line. Meaning with just one connection in Moscow you could take a train all the way to St Petersburg or even Paris.

So let’s talk about it –

Who lived in these lands before Russians occupied them?
When and why was Vladivostok established?
How did the city contribute to the wars of the early 20th century?
And most importantly how is it possible that you can cut a car in half, ship it from Japan. Weld it back together and make a profit?

Lets Roll!!!

The earliest mention of civilization in this region goes back to 698 when it was inhabited by the Balhae.

Archaeological evidence suggests that the Balhae culture was an amalgamation of High Tang Chinese, Korean, and Tungus cultures with a population of about 500,000.

There was little to no agriculture yet and so most of the kingdom’s population was semi-nomadic.

There is evidence of these people using both traditional Chinese imported from the Tang dynasty but there is also evidence of them having developed their own scripts.

Of course Chinese historians today have very practical reasons for claiming that the early civilization in the region spoke some version of Chinese thereby giving China a legitimate cultural claim to the region.

Not that Russia cares – have you heard about the Kuril Islands – Japanese people lived there for centuries and they are never getting those back.

Anyway, a final interesting possibility about the Balhae people may be that an eruption of Mount Paektu between the 930s– and 940s may have put an end to this civilization – this speculation is based on records of massive population displacement into nearby regions.

After this, the lands were mostly inhabited by Mongolic tribes including the Mongols themselves who invaded around 1233 enveloping this region into relative historical darkness and obscurity.

While some Chinese settlers may have returned to the lands in the centuries after this
they remained sparsely populated mostly because the Chinese, Koreans and even the Japanese chose to pursue policies of self-isolation and protectionism since they had suffered so much from the onslaught of Mongolian hordes.

Historically this didn’t work out for them as the East Asian nations were all technologically and economically eclipsed during the most important years of exploration and colonialism giving European nations the opportunity to expand.

Some of which expanded a lot –

As the various remaining Mongolian States collapsed – Russia rose and filled the power vacuum left behind – expanding all the way to the easternmost corners of the continent and even Alaska.

They did eventually bump into Chinese resistance however and were temporarily stopped. But this did not last long as multiple European powers brought the once-great empire to its knees during the Opium Wars.

And so after being thoroughly humbled China was forced into a number of so-called Unequal treaties
Which were extremely favorable for the European powers.

So in 1858 and 1860 the defeated Chinese gave Russia what it wanted – more land

But this land was different for it finally gave Russia the deepwater port it had long been searching for and an opening into the Pacific Ocean.

And so on July 2nd 1860 a military unit was sent to Golden Horn Bay to establish an out-post, which received the name Vladivostok.

Also, a special commission made a decision on the appointment of Vladivostok as the main port of the Russian Empire in the Far East

In the 1870s, the government started encouraging resettlement to the South Ussuri region, and the population of the post increased significantly: according to the first census of 1878, there were 4163 inhabitants.

In 1880 Vladivostok officially received the status of a city – it prospered as many new trade relations were established and lots of foreign workers started flocking to the city.

The city arguably reached its golden age when the final segment of the Trans Siberian Railway was completed along with the Chinese Eastern Railway in the 1890’s

and so by the end of the century, the city reached a population of over 100 thousand.

However, difficult times lay ahead for Russia, and one of the first major events which would set its Imperial government on course for destruction happened in the far east.

Seeing Russia as a rival, Japan offered to recognize its dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of Korea being within the Japanese sphere of influence.

Russia refused and demanded the establishment of a neutral buffer zone between in Korea north of the 39th parallel.

The Japanese government perceived a threat to their plans for expansion into mainland Asia and chose instead to go to war.

So after these negotiations broke down in 1904, the Japanese Navy opened hostilities in a surprise by attacking the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur in China.

Port Arthur fell to the Japanese and the Russian fleet station there was told link up with the one stationed in Vladivostok.

Another fleet was on its way from the Baltic Sea – it too was on its way to link up in Vladivostok.

This led up to the famous battle of Tsushima.

“It was naval history’s first, and last, decisive sea battle fought by modern steel battleship fleets”

Meaning there has never been any other battle where a fleet made up of modern vessels was completely annihilated

It was probably the most humiliating defeat in Russia’s history, which lost all its battleships and most of its cruisers and destroyers.

An estimated 127’242 tons of ships were sunk during the encounter. 99.6% of this weight belonged to Russian ships.

The Japanese navy was faster more modern and it did not have to swim halfway around the world to get to its target.

The complete Japanese victory surprised international observers and transformed the balance of power, resulting in Japan’s emergence as a new player on the international stage and Russia’s decline in prestige and influence in Europe.

The humiliating defeat for the Russian Empire contributed to growing domestic unrest which culminated in the 1905 Russian Revolution and accelerated the disintegration of the Russian autocracy.

The war also marked the first victory of an Asian country against a Western power in modern times.

This wasn’t all bad for Vladivostok – Now that Russia was no longer leasing Port Arthur from the Chinese it once again became the most important trading port in the far east – even though it would freeze over during wintertime. Were as Port Arthur stayed open year-round.

The population of the city exceeded 100 thousand and most curiously Russians accounted for less than half of all of those people.

The news of the beginning of the First World War came to the Far East in the form of a short coded telegram from St. Petersburg – Germany had declared war on Russia

The troops situated in Vladivostok and around Primorsky Kry situated about 10’000km away from the front lines of the First World war were not supposed to get involved in the fighting, but to continue serving in the Far East.

After all, the now powerful Japanese Empire was nearby.

Until 1914, all Russian troops in the Far East were preparing for conflict with the Japanese.

Luckily however, on August 23, 1914 – Japan declared war on Germany, actually joining the alliance of England, France and Russia.

this was done not out of altruistic motives, but with a desire to seize the colonies of the “Second Reich” on the Chinese coast and the Pacific islands.

This “almost allied” status of the Japanese neighbor made it possible to begin the mobilization and transfer of “Siberian” divisions as they are called. To the German facing front.

It is curious that the Germans during the First World War called the Cossacks from the far east as the “Manchurian Cossacks”. Whereas in Russia all soldiers from the Far East were just “Siberian”.

But of course this meant that the far east became essentially defenseless.

Still, Vladivostok was now the most important port of Russia.

The conflict with Germany blocked the sea trade of St. Petersburg and other Baltic and Finnish ports of the Russian Empire.

And When Turkey entered the war three months later, the ports of the Black Sea also became useless.

Murmansk and the railway to it simply did not exist yet at the start of the war.

And the port of Arkhangelsk as usual was frozen up.

All international trade and war aid now had to go through Vladivostok and it became imperative to accelerate the construction of new port facilities.

After general mobilization, the size of the Russian army exceeded 5 million people, and the hostilities unfolded over a vast area – from the Baltic to the Transcaucasia.

The gigantic front and the huge number of troops required an unprecedented expenditure of material resources.

Russia exhausted it’s resources almost immediately within months of the beginning of the war.

Since its own industry could not cope with the growing military orders, only purchases from abroad and their delivery to the front through Vladivostok could supply Russia’s desperate defence

Intensive work on the expansion of the Vladivostok port started immediately after the start of the war.

So by 1915, the port received a million tons of foreign cargo – almost four times more than in 1913

Ironically while Japan was still perceived to be the biggest threat in the East it was their support of 970 thousand rifles which equipped some 20 divisions of men.

Of course Russia paid a high price for these rifles.

In 1916 payments in Russian gold for military orders approached 300 million rubles, accounting for more than half of all budget revenues of the Japanese Empire.

The only other option was to give up possession of land

With all these goods arriving in Vladivostok the railways could not cope with the load which was arriving on steamers in increasing numbers.

And they tried to solve this problem by importing even more.

Yes they imported steam locomotives and carriages from the United States.

Indeed most American steamers that arrived in Vladivostok in 1914 were loaded with steam locomotives, wagons, rails, and other railway equipment.

Russia bought more than 13 thousand cars in the USA and Canada – All of them disassembled were delivered by sea to Vladivostok.

Despite the Russian efforts to export everything to the front Vladivostok was the main bottleneck

And cargo began to accumulate

The total cost of imported materials, piling up the main port of the Far East, was estimated at more than one and a half billion tsarist rubles, which was equal to half of the budget of the Russian Empire in the pre-war years.

After 1917 the war became increasingly unpopular with the Russian populace. Political and social unrest grew, with the Marxist antiwar Bolshevik Party increasing its support and Large numbers of common soldiers either mutinied or deserted from the Imperial Russian Army.

This lead up to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The communist party essentially had enough power to negotiate its own peace treaty with Germany and the Central Powers.

Faced with these events, the British and French governments decided upon an Allied military intervention in Russia.

And the first allied troops (mostly made up of US soldiers) were sent to Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok in order to protect the supplies that had been pilling up in the port cities from falling into the hands of the Germans.

The Japanese could now also freely enter Vladivostok and points along the China–Russia border.

Over 70 thousand Japanese troops entered Russia this way.

The deployment of such a large force for a rescue operation made the Allied Powers wary of Japanese true intentions.

By November 1918, the Japanese occupied all ports and major towns in the Russian Maritime Provinces.

They desired the establishment of a buffer state in Siberia, and the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff viewed the situation in Russia as an opportunity for settling Japan’s “northern problem”.

The Japanese government was also intensely hostile to communism.

And as such with the aid of other allied powers a number of Bolshevik uprising in the East including Vladivostok were stopped.

But By the 1920s it was clear that the Bolsheviks were going to win the Civil War in Western Russia.

And so The Allied Powers withdrew their support while The Japanese military stayed in the Far East until 1922 and

only left Northern parts of Sakhalin Island in 1925

after agreeing to enforce agreements following the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 with the new Bolshevik government.

By the time of the Soviets, Vladivostok was in decline: the retreating forces of the Japanese army removed all material value ​​from the city.

Life was paralyzed: there was no money in the banks, the equipment of enterprises had been plundered.

And Due to mass emigration and repression, the city’s population decreased to 106 thousand.

During the 1930’s and 1940’s Vladivastok became an important transit point for prisoners who were destined for various labor camps in the far east and Siberia.

And a massive concentration camp that could hold up to 56 thousand prisoners was established not far from the city.

Vladivostok managed to get through the Great Patriotic War without direct hostility – this was despite the fact that there was the constant threat of attack from Japan whose naval and military presence vastly exceeded that of the Russians in the region – It also certainty felt inevitable – why wouldn’t Japan take advantage of Russia while it was struggling with the German invasion in the West?

While the Japanese may have wanted to invade the soviet union as they despised the soviet regime they were simply tied with their war in China and the pacific region.

Subjugating China was a massive undertaking – made more difficult by bad infrastructure. Invading Russia in addition to China would have been a bit of a stretch – though such considerations didn’t stop others from trying.

Although it’s not exactly a fair comparison. Germany had massive superiority in terms of its industrial capacity and capability of absorbing losses – Japan couldn’t. Its total strength was for more limited though it did have naval superiority.

But back to Vladivostok – during the war it processed cargo in larger quantities than both Murmansk and Archangelsk combined.

An interesting hero of the war was Anna Ivanovna Shchetinina she was a Soviet merchant marine sailor who became the world’s first woman to serve as a captain of an ocean-going vessel.

Contributing to the transportation of cargo from the US to Vladivostok and aiding in the evacuation of people from Tallinn during the The Baltic Sea Campaigns.

Over 70’000 of its residents were sent to fight on the Western fronts protecting Moscow, fighting in Stalingrad, Ukraine, Belarus and many marched into Berlin.

In the final days of WW2, the military bases at Vladivostok collectively served as the staging point for the offensives against Japanese forces in northeastern China, northern Korea, the Sakhalin, and the Japanese Kurile Islands.

After the many years of War Vladivostok wasn’t in a great state. The city didn’t even have a sewage system going in into the 1950s.

But overall Russia was on a path to recovery with the country seeing its standards of living rise.

And with Nikita Khrushchev showing particular interest in improving Vladivostok to make it look more like San Francisco – a city which it is often compared with.

A number of infrastructure plans were made and Vladivostok was slowly but surely on its way to looking like the modern city of today.

While in practice the city had already been closed to foreigners for many years it was in the 1950’s that it was officially closed off to foreigners as it had the important military role of hosting Russias Pacific Fleet.

Even Russians themselves needed to receive permits to be allowed to visit usually needing locals or their family members to request special permission to host them as guests.

This was not that unusual in Soviet Russia and Even today there are still cities that are closed off that access of which requires special permission.

December 26th 1991 was the last day of the Soviet Union and Mikhail Gorbachev resigned the red flag over the Kremlin replacing it with the Russian tricolor reminiscent of Imperial Russian colors.

The next morning the Soviet people woke up in a new country.

The initial shock devastated the economy. Businesses all over the country that used to operate with a helping hand from the soviet government suddenly had to learn to operate in an open market and compete with foreign businesses.

People lost jobs. Weren’t being paid and had to look for alternative ways of surviving.

It was a rough sudden transition.

But the people of Vladivostok had one ace up their sleeve that helped them get through the worst of it.

Japanese cars were first imported to Vladivostok at the end of the 80’s when it was still a closed city.

Auto import completely changed the face of the city and the dynamics of its economy.

It was a business for the common man, allowing people like officers, fishermen, and scientists who lost their jobs get a second chance.

Russian Residents were amazed by the options available in Japanese cars such as air conditioning and automatic transmission – some were even happy to exchange their apartments for the imported vehicles.

This also meant that in the far east the wast majority of cars adopted right-side steering wheels whereas in Russia traffic is on the left side as in continental Europe.

While the internal market of Vladivostok and Primorsky kry was relatively small the business boomed because of all of the demand from all over Siberia.

Moscow wasn’t pleased with the rapid growth of the Far East car market, seeing it as a threat to the Russian industry attempting to prohibit the operation of right-side steering vehicles in Russia, but it backed down in the face of many protests. Instead, the government has been slowly ramping up taxes on various methods of importation to make it less profitable.

A record number of cars passed into the far east in 2008, when more than half a million were brought in.

This probably co-incided with Russias short-lived economic boom which was largely fuelled by increasing oil prices before the recession really kicked off in 2014

A common way of avoiding taxes for the car salesmen was to import car parts separately and then assemble the cars in the port.

A common myth was that some cars would be literally sawed in half and then welded back together to be sold. Though I have not been able to confirm this claim.

The “Green Corner” in Vladivostok, although somewhat shrunk in size, is still full of cars. The used car market has long been predicted to disappear, but it seems that this is still a long way off.

According to the Russian Census of 2010, Vladivostok’s residents include representatives of over seventy nationalities and ethnic groups.

But even though it is one of the most easternmost metropolitan cities in Russia the wast majority of people living there are Ethnic Russians.

And Vladivostok has actually lost a lot of the multinational diversity it had going into the 19th century when entire national quarters for Chinese, Korean and Japanese citizens existed all of which gradually disappears following the long years of war and turmoil of the early 20th century.

Vladivostok is a city with a lot of potential. With open access to pacific trade routes, it should embrace trade and lets its people prosper.

Additionally, the region as a whole contains an immense wealth of natural beauty.

If Russia embraces openness and change and keeps investing in the infrastructure and educational facilities of the cities then Vladivostok really could someday become the San Francisco of but as of now it still has a long way to go.

But this does not mean that the city isn’t worth a visit. For it has an immense wealth of history and by being distinctly Russian in its ethnic character it has lots to give to its Asian visitors who want to experience something essentially European in the far far east.

It is neither hot and arid nor humid and tropical but mountainous and often bone-chillingly cold.

A scenic land of tall mountains and narrow valleys

Lesotho has the highest base elevation of any nation in the world. 

Meaning that the country lies entirely above 1000 meters in elevation and most of it around 1800 meters. 

Its highest peak Mount Ntlenyana, is 3,482 metres above sea level. 

With 2 major mountain ranges within its borders Lesotho owes its long history of political independence to thes e surroundings that have protected it

 which have also led to the Nations’ peculiar position being nestled completely within the borders of the Republic of South Africa.

Making it the largest sovereign enclave in the world. ITs capital; MAseru is roughly 1000km away from Cape Town and 400 away from Pretoria. While the nearest foreign country is Eswatini previously known as Swaziland roughly 420km away.

There are only two other national enclaves in the world. Meaning  countries within countries. Those would be Vatican State in Rome, Italy and San Marino also situated in Italy.

However both of those states pale in comparison to Lesotho when it comes to their territorial size and population

Lesotho’s population of 2 million 142 thousand is more comparable to countries like North Macedonia, Slovenia or Botswana. 

While in terms of land area Lesotho is just a little smaller than the country of Belgium and larger than Armenia

Meaning that in terms of size and population Lesotho is not a microstate and very much a legitimate country.

So how did The Kingdom of the sky come to be?

Why is it not a part of South Africa? 

And what is life like in this peculiar country? 

The story of Lesotho officially begins with its first monarch Moshoeshoe, a man who formed his own clan and became a chief around 1804. 

He and his followers settled around the northern parts of Lesotho between 1820 and 1823.

This was a very turbulent time for ethnic african communities as the region was going through what was known as the Mfecane – a period of widespread chaos and warfare.

As King Shaka created the militaristic Zulu Kingdom his forces caused a wave of warfare and disruption in the region. 

Displacing many tribes, forcing them to move leading to further

widespread warfare and the consolidation and creation of new tribes such as the Sotho people who were united by Mosashoe in the 1820’s.   

In the coming years the nationhood of the country was beginning to establish as the Sotho people defended the lands they had settled from the incursions of various British and Dutch colonists who were trying to settle there themselves. 

This culminated in the Free State–Basotho Wars between Soto and The Orange Free State which  was an independent Boer sovereign republic.

Ultimately the Basotho were not able to hold off the Boers. Their territory was overrun. 

The Orange Free State forces had achieved great military success, and Moshoeshoe’s only hope was to ask the British for help. 

On 12 March 1868, the British parliament declared the Basotho Kingdom a British protectorate.  one of three such Territories (the others being Bechuanaland [now Botswana] and Swaziland now Eswatini).

The Orange Free State was forced to discontinue the war otherwise it would risk confronting the British. 

Then in February 1869, the boundaries of present day Lesotho were drawn. Giving up much of the territory the tribe used to have.  

but at least 

No further armed conflict between the Free State and Basotho took place.

By swearing loyalty to the British, King Moshoeshoe was able to save his kingdom from being overrun. 

He died two years later in 1870. 

the territory remained essentially autonomous in the early years of colonial rule, with traditional Basotho chiefs wielding effective power as they always had.

In 1871 Britain handed over control to the Cape colony otherwise known as the Cape of Good Hope.  

And In late 1870s  Cape authorities attempted to consolidate their power over the region and enforce their laws.

Basutoland started chafing under the new restrictions and attempts to reduce the authority of its chiefs. 

Matters came to a head in 1879 when a part of Basutoland was reserved for white settlement and the Basotho natives were required to give up their rights to firearms. 

Within months, most Basotho chiefs were in open rebellion and the Colonial Cape forces  suffered heavy casualties, 

as the Basotho had obtained  firearms from the Orange Free State and enjoyed a natural defensive advantage in their country’s mountainous terrain.

A peace treaty was signed with Basotho chiefs in 1881, The land remained in Basotho hands and the nation held onto its unrestricted access to firearms.   

And ultimately the Cape Colony could not force its dominion over the Basotho who were more than willing to defend and protect the rule of its tribal chiefs. 

So In 1884 the Cape Colony renounced its claim and the territory became a Crown colony by the name of Basutoland.

Since it was able to leave the Cape Colony it did not have the option of  becoming a part of  The Union of South Africa 

Which was  the precursor to the nation of South Africa  that came into being on 31 May 1910 with the unification of the Cape Colony, the Natal Colony, the Transvaal, and the Orange River Colony. 

Basutoland was left out  and so its status would remain unchanged for quite some time until it gained independence from Britain and became the Kingdom of Lesotho in 1966.

At that point, South Africa had implemented full-blown apartheid, and Lesotho, with its majority native African population, couldn’t possibly join it. 

Apartheid was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on white supremacy, which ensured that South Africa was dominated politically, socially, and economically by the nation’s minority white population.  

According to this system of social stratification, white citizens had the highest status, followed by Asians and Coloureds, then black Africans.

Lesotho of course opposed apartheid from the beginning and many political refugees ended up finding asylum there until the abolition of the apartheid in the mid-90s.

So how have things developed in the country since then? 

Today The Basotho still form the overwhelming majority of the country’s population

Internally, divisions between different chiefdoms have caused much political tensions and riots in the country, but a sense of Sotho nationhood and cultural unity remains strong.

Lesotho is also home to a Zulu minority, a expanding population of Chinese migrants and other Asians, and a European community that is dominated by expatriate teachers, missionaries, aid workers, technicians, and development advisers.

One of the biggest challenges faced by the country today being that 

Lesotho’s population is growing at a slower rate than that of most other African countries. 

Even though the country’s birth rate is slightly above the world average. 

The limiting factor being the high prevalence of AIDS/HIV meaning that 

Lesotho’s population is relatively young, with the majority of the population below age 29.

And Life expectancy is also below the average for Africa and is ranked as one of the lowest in the world with the average being just around 55 years. 

This is something that is somewhat difficult for the nation to fix as Lesotho is a very  poor country with water and its labour force really being the main driving forces of its economy while  being entirely reliant on its relationship with South Africa. 

Historically, the Basotho have always seeked employment in South Africa

as much as half the adult male population worked on a temporary basis in South Africa in the early 20th century, predominantly in  its gold mines but also other economic sectors.  

So it wasn’t long ago that Lesotho had the distinction of having a higher proportion of its labor force temporarily employed outside its borders than any other country in the world.

it was normal for any adult to spend at least a year or two In South African mines like a passage to adulthood. 

 most migrants worked a few contracts to save enough money to get married, and then “retired” to farming in Lesotho or more often were forced to leave because their work contracts ran out. 

And so Lesotho served as a labor reserve for South Africa’s mining industries for more than a century driving Lesotho’s economy before the migrant labor economy declined in the 1990s due to heightened restrictions. 

Until the 1950s, Black Africans from Lesotho were treated within South Africa just  like other South African Blacks. 

This was  because in 1911, when the Union of South Africa was established,a provision was made for the future incorporation of the three”High Commission Territories previously mentioned. 

As a result, the South African government tended to treat the nationals of these countries similarly to its own natives. 

and the British government tended to neglect their governance and development. 

It was not until some point in the 1950s that it finally became clear that Basutoland and the two other former High Commission 

Territories would not be incorporated into South Africa, and South Africa began imposing and progressively tightening border controls. 

However, the border is of the kind that can never be sealed. In the Western lowlands, it is a river that for much of the year can be walked through; 

much of the rest of it is in mountainous territory that would be impractical to fence effectively. 

So crossing the border and 

evading controls has always been possible. 

Once in South Africa, a person from Lesotho can seek employment or self-employment in the large informal sector with relatively little fear of detection, and not much risk.

Although both sides have rejected politically unifying Lesotho with South Africa, it appears that in practice both governments have decided there is no point in trying to prevent this movement. 

Seeing as it has always been easy to move between the countries educated and entrepreneurial people always choose to leave meaning the country has difficulty establishing a productive labour force. 

And while the average wage in South Africa is worth about $1440 a month and the average in Lesotho is 780$ this trend is likely to continue well into the future. 

——-

Since the 1990’s Lesotho has transformed itself into being another kind of reserve for South Africa 

With the signing of a 1986 treaty to move forward with the Lesotho highlands water project 

 Lesotho became the first ever water exporting country in the world 

Lesotho Highlands Water Project is an ongoing water supply project with a hydropower component, developed in partnership between the governments of Lesotho and South Africa.

It comprises a system of several large dams and tunnels throughout Lesotho and delivers water to the Vaal River System in South Africa.

It is Africa’s largest water transfer scheme.

The purpose of the project is to provide Lesotho with a source of revenue in exchange for the provision of water to South Africa, as well as generate hydroelectricity for Lesotho

Supporters of the water project describe it as a mutually beneficial agreement: Lesotho has abundant water, while South Africa faces severe water shortage 

the idea of Lesotho being abundant in water is something that anchors its national identity and at the same time is commodified and sold. 

In a way Lesotho’s Water abundance is a critical conceptual vehicle for linking water commodification to its national image and independence. 

For if Lesotho did not have this one crucial resource then the basis for its nationhood would be greatly diminished and it would have little to no leverage in any negotiations with South Africa meaning it would always be completely at its mercy. 

In reality however water abundance is highly localized in Lesotho. 

With its extremely diverse topography, leading to diverse rainfall patterns and a patchy geography of water.

In addition to being localized spatially, water in Lesotho is localized temporally, with high seasonality. 

Meaning that while the country produces and exports huge amounts of water its people are often left without it and are unable to attain it. 

The massive dam reservoirs in the country seem to proclaim water abundance by their very existence. But even people living beside them lack well-maintained water taps or any form of irrigation and are prohibited from extracting water from the reservoir for their own use. 

In truth corruption likely leads to Basotho seeing little benefit from their most abundant resource. 

But it would be unfair to say that water is the only resource that Lesotho has. 

In the north west of the country located in Maluti mountains you will find the world’s highest diamond mine.

The Letseng mine is famous for the size and quality of the diamonds it produces and has the highest average selling price per piece in the world.

Its special because it produces massive diamonds, sometimes the size of multiple golf balls. 

But while the physical size of the diamonds found in this mine is huge  the amount of excavation required for their extraction has historically made mining not highly profitable and overall, the quantity of diamonds being extracted in Letseng is very low compared to more profitable mines. 

But not all of Lesotho is just mountains, water reservoirs, mines and pasture land. 

The largest city Maseru was established as a police camp that evolved after the Free State Basotho War and was assigned as the capital after the country became a British protectorate in 1869. 

When the country achieved independence in 1966, Maseru retained its status as capital. 

The latest (2016) census lists the city’s population at 330,760, or around a tenth of the entire population of the country, and half of the total urban population in the nation. 

The population of the city was 98,017 in the 1986 census, and 137,837 by the 1996 census, demonstrating the early rapid expansion of the city after its independence.

Urban life is a blend of traditional and Western culture.

In Maseru there are shops and markets that offer regional crafts and goods, as well as modern hotels, restaurants, and nightclubs. 

Many buildings, however, were burned or damaged by looting following the general election of 1998 and the unrest that followed. 

Considering the history and its relationship to South Africa, It is not surprising that the largest city of the country has evolved right on the border with South Africa where the edge of the city is defined by the Mohokare River and where South Africa begins. 

Thereby facilitating labour exchange and migration between the two nations. 

—————-

The contradictions created by Lesotho’s lack of economic independence in the face of political independence are reflected in the cultural life of the country.

The Sotho combines modern and traditional ways, providing continuity in a society that is disrupted by a system of migratory labour. 

traditional authority is still exercised through a system of chieftaincy, extending from the king through the chiefs to the village level.

 The chiefs are largely responsible for the working and distribution of land although this system has been hampered by recent legislations. 

Despite increasing urbanization and the growth of modern institutions and bureaucracy, many Sotho are still interested in building a rural homestead and perpetuating traditional institutions. They also remain loyal to the chieftaincy system.

 Circumcision forms an integral part of the initiation ceremonies that train boys to take their place as full members of the family, clan, and nation— which are the pillars holding up society. 

Many young boys spend a large part of their lives as herdsmen, while women and young girls do much of the hard work in the fields. 

Because of the sharp variations in climate, both men and women wear the traditional basotho blankets, one of the most distinguishing traits of the Basotho. 

Men and women both wear the typical Sotho hats as well. 

———————————————

While economically the near future of Lesotho is not looking very bright it is certainly a place of great beauty and ethnic traditions that I hope to visit one day.

The nearest neighboring capital Nairobi lies to its south west in Kenya; about 1000 km away and Addis Ababa in Ethiopia is a similar distance roughly 1066 km north west. 

locally known as Xamar, it is the capital and most populous city of Somalia currently it has an estimated population of 2.28 million residents.

Mogadishu was One of the earliest settlements on the East African coast

it enjoyed the height of its prosperity during the 14th and 15th centuries and was during the early modern period considered one of the wealthiest.

It became the capital of independent Somalia in 1960 as the former colonial possession of Italian Somaliland was dissolved. 

While possessing a rich cultural heritage and by being situated on the horn of Africa with beautiful beaches, modern day Somalia is unfortunately mostly associated with piracy, and war. 

The start date of the Somali civil war is disputed, but it likely began around 1989 and the fighting reached Mogadishu in 1991. 

Now that the country has reached over 30 years of fighting with a total casualty list that is over 500’000 thousand people things appear to be somewhat settling down. 

Mogadishu has witnessed the development of the city’s first gas stations, supermarkets, and incoming passenger flights. 

its main market offers a variety of goods from food to electronic gadgets, Hotels operate with security support from private militias.

And if you look up Mogadishu on trip advisor you will see hotel and restaurant reviews even beach resorts. 

It appears There has been a concentrated effort to make Somalia look like a real nation. 

In reality however that is pretty far from the truth. None of the issues that lead to the start of the civil war have been resolved. 

And it seems the city has just accepted state of war as “Business as usual”

The appearance of Somalia as a real country is a facade that doesn’t go very far.

Travel advice for Somalia today states the following: 

Those considering travel to Somalia, including Somaliland and Puntland, should obtain kidnap and recovery insurance, as well as medical evacuation insurance.

If you must venture to the city, you should be accompanied by hired guards and ride in, preferably, an armoured car.

Violent crime, kidnapping, bombings, indirect fire attacks, murder, assassinations, armed robbery, carjacking, illegal roadblocks and attacks by Al Shabab who are considered to be the most dangerous terrorist group in Africa is just a part of every day life, and business in Mogadishu. 

So, why is this conflict going on for so long, what are its causes? 

And What keeps this city and country from prospering and getting back on its feet? 

The reason why it’s so hard to conclude the fight in Somalia is because there is no singular cause. 

It’s a complicated dynamic of clans fighting for power, terrorists trying to instate islamic laws, entrepreneurs who profit from the war and a powerless government that is trying to establish itself after total collapse. 

If you were to sum it up it’s because Somalia as it is today is not much of a country and does not have the capability of uniting its people –  existing more or less in a state of anarchy. 

Therefore, The focus over the last 10 years has been to establish a governing central authority that could unite the country. This however as you will see has many challenges and may never materialise. 

FRACTURED SOMALIA

Despite years of efforts Somalia is still very fractured. It’s more like 4 nations living within the boundaries of one. 

The Southern part of Somalia called Jubilant home to its central government in Mogadishu is split in two, 

because Al Shabaab controls some 40 percent of the region’s territory to the south of Mogadishu. 

The top Eastern part of the country is known as Puntland. It is also semi-detached from the central government.

And it’s the base where much of international piracy originated. 

Then there is the issue of Somaliland. In the Westernmost part of the country which has been seeking independence since before the break out of the war. 

While unrecognised internationally, Somaliland is a self proclaimed state with its own flag, parliament, currency and a national identity.

To go to Somaliland you would need to get a Somaliland visa. 

Mogadishu and the government has very little influence over it. 

And It also happens to be the most stable part of Somalia with the least amount of conflict and terrorism.

Therefore, Unlike the rest of the country its infrastructure and economy has been able to rebuild itself to a greater extent. 

Asking why Somaliland has managed to be more stable than the rest of the country leads us to the next major source of trouble and to the actual source of the civil war. 

Animation that switches the map to CLANS

Apart from Rwanda and Burundi, Somalia is the only culturally homogeneous nation in Africa meaning that its population is almost entirely made up of Somalis. While in theory this should have made somalia more stable; it has not.

The failure, collapse and eventual disintegration of the Somali state facilitated the emergence of civil militia groups, often aligned to various political clan groupings that have been around long before the civil war and make up the hierarchy of Somali society. 

described as ‘clan families’, which group together a number of people that share a common descent. 

Among these the Darood are generally regarded as the largest, and are spread across the northeastern and central zones of the Somali territory;

Their pre-eminence is contested by the Hawiye clan, whose political weight is greatly increased by their control of Mogadishu.

A third clan family, the Isaaq, are heavily concentrated in the north central part of the Somali territories that was to become Somaliland, and have become associated with that region in particular. 

Which is quite opposite to the Dir, who are widely dispersed all around Somalia. 

A final grouping, the Rahanweyn, who have been concentrated in the river valleys of southern Somalia.

Though each clan is broadly associated with a ‘home’ territory, the boundaries of such territories are constantly contested especially when resources are at stake. 

Clan conflicts do not arise only at the level of the clan family or the individual clan, but at  the sub-clan or sub-sub-clan level or any level appropriate to the resources that are being fought over.

During the government collapse these clans began creating their own militias and under the pretext of providing security to their clansmen, created a process by which clans armed themselves in anticipation of attacks by rival clans.

And after the recent Ogaden war the country had an abundant supply of small arms. 

So, The reason why Somaliland is doing better than the rest of the country is mainly attributable to the fact that it is held by one major clan whereas the rest of the country has been caught in the midst of a bitter clan struggle. 

The clan’s political differences are used as instruments of conflict by militia leaders in their quests to plunder what remains of Somalia’s resources under the pretext of supporting their  respective clans. 

As the established government broke down leaving a power vacuum 

It engulfed Mogadishu and much of the country in fierce clan fighting.

Eventually Mpgadishu was split between different clans. 

Thus, unlike in most cities in Africa, Mogadishu and most Somali cities are composed of districts or neighbourhoods identified with a dominant clan from the area.

Residents may move across the city to access markets, schools, the airport, and other services, but to own property and reside is only possible in zones associated with their clan or sub clan. 

Typically, in Somalian cities members of clans without a power base in the city must forge a protection relationship with a more powerful clan.

And Mogadishu is an example of this category. 

The city is dominated by the Hawiye clan family; and some neighbourhoods such as Medina are known as cosmopolitan hotspots where Somalis of all clans can reside and do business, though with security arrangements that must be negotiated with the dominant local clan.

Members of marginalized clans are more vulnerable to violence and disasters since they lack access to necessary resources and are more exposed during the disasters such as famines that have struck in the country in 1991 and 2011

In such circumstances, they turn to more powerful clans, external military forces or Al-Shabaab for protection and representation thus magnifying conflict.

Al shabaab 

Al Shabaab  emerged in 2006 as a force that was opposing Ethiopian soldiers who were occupying Mogadishu at the time adding another unpredictable element to the situation. 

Wars between Somalia and Ethiopia, stretch back to the 16th century. 

There is a long history of painful competition between the two countries.

More recently they are involved in the dispute over the Ogaden region which in theory belongs to greater Somalia but was given to Ethiopia. 

In this sense when the Al Shabaab emerged they were viewed as freedom fighters and liberators of Somalia and gained a lot of support. 

Al Shabaab became much more than just a terrorist organisation. It became like a government body that also happened to engage in terrorist activities.  

acting almost like a competitor to the federal government.

Al Shabaab managed to establish the first legal system in the country since the start of the clan based civil war. 

Many in the country perceive Al Shabaab to be less corrupt than the federal government and more capable of providing certain services such as justice. 

Interestingly, when six Al-Shabaab leaders were interviewed they suggested that the group was fighting a political rather than an ideological battle, and that its members had little interest in Al-Qaida’s global agenda even though they are linked with each other. 

Many seek to join its ranks even now,

as the organisation is very good at spreading propaganda and marketing itself. 

Younger members are attracted by the opportunity for adventure, prospects of economic security, and because of the encouragement of friends who have already joined. 

Fighters often leave because life in the group, and the treatment of its members, are harsher than expected, or they find that the group does not abide by its religious principles in practice, especially in its brutality.

Family members can sometimes persuade members of Al-Shabaab to leave the group but the practical difficulties and dangers of desertion constitute a major deterrent.

In recent years al shabaab has lost quite a lot of ground thanks to AMISOM african union peacekeeping mission which has pushed it  out of the capital and now its strength lies mostly to the south of Mogadishu. 

However that does not mean that Al Shabaan is no longer operating in the city. Al Shabaab operatives are everywhere and its men are constantly keeping the citizens of Mogadishu on their toes. 

A bombing or an attack can happen at any moment anywhere in the country apparently in the name of bringing order and Sharia Law to the country. 

ECONOMY OF MOGADISHU 

While war is truly horrendous, for most of the people involved there are always those who seek to find a profit and Mogadishu is ripe for profiteering. 

in countries where effective government institutions are absent, security and social services, such as education and health care are often privatised as has been the case in Mogadishu. 

This has lead to some individuals having an interest in the continuation of violence 

to engage in lucrative sectors of the economy which would be regulated or banned under a functioning government.

As there hasn’t been a stable federal government in the country for the last 30 years business elites have gradually taken over basic functions.

health services, the education sector, telecommunication networks and ‘public’ transport have all been privatised. 

And in this way it is likely that powerful individuals benefit from the lawlessness in Somalia and have an interest in the continuation of violence. 

One example is the extremely high profit margins in the tax-free import/export sector. 

Tax free of course because there is no central authority to tax the imports and the exports. 

Sugar, rice, manufactured goods, electronics, cigarettes and petroleum are imported tax-free; 

Some of these goods are then smuggled to neighbouring states, such as cigarettes to Kenya.

Another is of Clan leaders, in collaboration with business people, engaging in sectors such as drug trafficking and even money printing.

As there is no government to print new bills, why not print them yourself? 

The most visible shift to this war time economy happened after 1991.

Some people started to sell looted property to foreign countries.

The Chamber of Commerce in Dubai recorded significantly higher import figures

for scrap metal, copper and machines as much of the public infrastructure in Mogadishu was pillaged. 

factories were exported as scrap,  power stations, bridges, national assets, telecommunication equipment, marine vessels, national schools and offices, even national monuments were dismantled and exported.

Some positives came too. For example It was a private initiative to rehabilitate roads leading to the satellite airports of Mogadishu. 

When the international airport of Mogadishu was closed during the worst years of war, local businesspeople and clan leaders alike established their own airstrips on the periphery of the city.

There  high ‘Taxes’ and ‘fees’ were then charged 

Although airport facilities were non-existent in these private airports, ‘fees’ resembled those of professional airports.

In this way a private airport or rather an air strip could have easily generated over a million dollars in revenue per year making the privatization of entry and exit points to the country extremely lucrative. 

As a result even aid agencies had to pay large sums for the delivery of food and support to disaster struck regions. 

The qaat trade is another source of income for faction leaders and

Business people. 

Quaat is imported from Kenya for southern Somalia, and because of its considerable high profit margins, the qaat trade has become a major pillar of Somalia’s war economy. 

The use of the narcotic drug in southern Somalia has significantly increased since the collapse of the former regime. Young militia men began chewing to cope with fear, fatigue and hunger. Others, including women, adopted the habit as a means to combat anxiety, traumatic experiences, unemployment and insecurity.

In 2002 the price for an AK-47 was $250 and $25 for an M16.67 The price difference can be explained by the relatively low cost of AK-47 ammunition compared with that of an M16.

Cir-toogte is one of Mogadishu’s weapons markets, where an AK-47 can be bought at open stalls. 

Cir-toogte translates into ‘shoot in the air’, as potential clients prefer to test the rifles before purchasing them.

In order to avoid paying supporters in cash, warlords used to distribute AK-47 rifles at the end of meetings as payment. 

While less prevalent that they used to be roadblocks, where gunmen extort money from passing drivers, are dotted across to Mogadishu and along roads and dirt tracks throughout the country, providing a major source of income for clan warlords. 

Militia members, armed with guns and sometimes with double-edged knives, erect wooden barriers to stop trucks and buses.

If the cargo is valuable, they may steal it.

The evidence seems compelling that some key individuals gain from the

continuous conflict, whereas the majority of Somalis suffer from continued

insecurity, poor health and educational standards and exclusion from job

opportunities. 

And The absence of secondary education and universities makes it

particularly easy for the militia to recruit among the younger male

Generation.

As we can see this private economy that has been created in Mogadishu can be very lucrative however it is sustained at a very high social cost and requires the continuation of conflict in the city. 

WHAT NOW? 

The circumstances that I’m describing are the same circumstances that existed in Mogadishu 30 years ago and still more or less exist there now.

Things have changed; the Federal Government has more power but the overall picture isn’t that different. 

All military interventions have failed and some such as the infamous Battle of Mogadishu depicted in Black Hawk down ended in disaster. 

Clan power struggles inevitably infiltrate the Federal government. 

Weaker clans are prevented from accessing enough resources for their survival, Al Shabaab keeps carrying out bombings, shady entrepreneurs extract the money that they have made illegally out of Somalia and invest it elsewhere, while the country cannot even elect a president without an open gun fights taking over its streets even in 2020. While its neighbours such as Kenya and Ethiopia might not even want to see a united Somalia and secretly undermine it.  

When are we going to be able to go to Somalia for a vacation? Possibly never and many certainly believe that it never will be a nation, maybe in 2077 but I suspect not within this decade. 

While it is starting to look like a nation Somalia is far from it. 

The sooner Somalia’s major cities become more inclusive, the more durable Somalia’s currently fragile political settlement will be. Strategies to support Somali-led efforts to negotiate greater inclusion in their cities should be a top reconciliation and development priority. 

Our main recommendation is to support Somali government and civic leaders to develop an urban inclusivity index that would help them measure and monitor changes in degrees of inclusion and exclusion in Somali cities.

At a latitude of roughly 65.5 lies the Arctic circle. Few major human settlements exist within its borders. The largest of these settlements is Murmansk and as its name suggests it is a city on the edge of the world.

It lies 2 degrees above the Arctic circle and is 108 kilometers from the Norwegian Border and 182 from the Finnish. The closest major Russian city is St Petersburg roughly 900km away. 

The city experiences Polar nights for roughly 40 days at a time. This means that between early December and mid January the sun does not rise. The opposite starts from the middle of May till the end of August during which the sun does not set. 

For an Arctic city the climate is relatively mild with peak summer temperatures averaging 12.9c in July and peak winter cold in February at -10.7c on average. 

This is largely a benefit of the warm North Atlantic current

This means that Murmansk is the only  Russian port with unrestricted and easy year-round access to the North Atlantic Ocean. 

As a result, the port is the 4th largest in the country and is one of the main stops along the Arctic’s Northeast Passage connecting Asia and Europe making Murmansk one of the most strategically important assets for Russia. 

In the early stages of WW1 Russia had only two harbours in its Northwest, the one in St Petersburg and Anhargelsk. With the first port blockaded and the other freezing over during winter another port was necessary. 

With this in mind, Murmansk officially became a city in 1916 with the intention of becoming one of Russia’s main ports. This also made it the last city created during the era of the Russian Empire as the Bolshevik revolution soon overthrew the monarchy and established the Soviet Union. 

It was during the revolution that started in 1917 that Murmansk received its first war time supplies. The Allies wanted Russia to remain a monarchy rather than turn into a comunist country and so supplies were sent to aid the White Army. 

An even bigger role for the port came during WW2. 

In June 1941, Stalin was taken by surprise when Hitler made his move against him.

At this time Russia was unprepared to wage a major war having had banked on their deal with Germany to delay war for a few years. 

German forces in Finnish territory launched an offensive against Murmansk in 1941 as part of Operation Silver Fox.

The city suffered extensive destruction, the magnitude of which was rivaled only by the destruction of Leningrad and Stalingrad. However, fierce Soviet resistance and harsh local weather conditions with the bad terrain prevented the Germans from capturing the city and cutting off the vital railway line and the ice-free harbor 

With the sudden turn of events, aid and supplies became a necessary lifeline keeping Russia in the war…. and Stalin was not modest about the situation demanding that Great Britain and US divert all its supplies to keep Russia in the war effort. 

These demands were met in kind and the supplies coming from the US were now divided between Britain and Russia. This was the beginning of the infamous Arctic Convoys. The main destinations being Anchargelsk and Murmansk. 

In total there were 78 convoys between August 1941 and May 1945, shipping some 3,964,000 tonnes of material sailing through several seas of the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. 

The convoys ran from Iceland (usually off Hvalfjörður) and traveled north of Jan Mayen Island to Arkhangelsk during the summer months, shifting south as the pack ice increased to Murmansk.

Cargo included tanks, fighter planes, fuel, ammunition, raw materials, and food. The early convoys in particular delivered armoured vehicles and Hawker Hurricanes to make up for shortages in the Soviet Union. 

It has been said that the main value of the convoys was political, proving that the Allies were committed to helping the Soviet Union’s fight, especially while they themselves were unable to open up a western front 

After defeating the Nazis, the restoration of Murmansk was a top priority—and, as a result, it prospered. The seaport, for example, grew to become one of the biggest in the USSR. While the population reached half a million people at its height. 

At the same time, military ports and shipyards multiplied with The Soviet Northern Fleet being stationed and founded there. 

The Northern Fleet is tasked with responsibility for operations and defense in the Arctic seas along Northern Russia, including the Barents Sea and Kara Sea, as well as the northwestern maritime approaches to Russia including the Norwegian Sea and Atlantic Ocean.

The Northern Fleet was supplied with many iconic firsts for the USSR, including nuclear submarines and strategic nuclear missiles and at one point there were some 200 submarines at its disposal. 

Today the Northern Fleet is headquartered in Severomorsk which is just some 20 km north of Murmansk. 

A part of the Northern Fleet and one of peculiarities of the city is the Atomic fleet. It’s the only fleet comprised of Nuclear Icebreakers in the world. You can see the first ever nuclear icebreaker “The Lenin” parked in Murmansks port as one of its main tourist attractions.

This brings us to Murmansk of today. Still the largest city in the Arctic by far but a city most definitely in decline as the population has shrunk to less than 300 thousand people. While the whole of Murmansk Oblast has nearly 450,000 fewer people than 30 years ago with a current total population of 750’000. 

One of the reasons being that during the Soviet Era Murmansk offered economic incentives and higher wages for those willing to move to the far north. Those incentives no longer exist creating a common trend in Russia with many people leaving the northernmost territories of the country in search of better living conditions elsewhere. 

Additionally, Russia’s cities are much larger than those in other Arctic regions as a result of the Soviet Union’s central planning system. With the recent transition to a market economy and the liberalisation of society the population of the Russian north adjusted to the new economic conditions by declining some 20%. 

The largest population decline in Russia has been in the Far East, where the population of Kamchatka declined by one-third, the Magadan oblast by nearly two-thirds and the Chukotka okrug by nearly 70%.

In the end, Few people are willing to endure the rough climate offered by arctic regions without considerable financial incentives.  Most people in Murmansk mention short summers, polar nights and the cold overall as the main reasons for wanting to leave… with poor economic prospects as secondary. Most perceive the city as a place to work for a short period of time while saving up money to move usually to St Petersburg, Moscow, Norway or Finland. 

Therefore presently Murmansk is likely going through a normalization process in terms of its population. After having been relatively speaking overpopulated during the Soviet era. 

It seems unlikely however that the city is going to lose its status as being the largest city in the arctic or indeed being the capital of the arctic. With an abundance of natural resources particularly minerals and even oil and gas as well as a growing fishing industry the city is self-sustaining. 

Combined with russia’s geostrategic interests in the arctic and by containing the Northern Fleet, Murmansk Oblast seems likely to play an interesting role in the future of the country as it has in the past

Many theories have aimed to explain how these people gained such renown in battle, particularly in a culture famous for its raiders and warriors. An idea was put forward in the 1700s by a Swedish historian named Samuel Ödman. This theory proposed that the berserkers were consuming the toxic, psychoactive mushroom called Amanita Muscara. Ödman claimed that this mushroom would cause the warriors to go into a frenzy and attack with ferocity. Over the centuries, a debate has surrounded this theory, but new evidence suggests it could be something else altogether! 

Let’s embark on a journey together and take an in-depth look at what Viking culture was genuinely like as we learn everything there is to know about the famous Berserker warriors! Were they really unstoppable war machines capable of tearing down huge swathes of men? or were they just a gang of religious cultists, starting fights overdosing on psichadelic mushrooms? 

It’s time we separate the facts from the fiction and explore the realities of this fascinating, ancient culture, whose influence is still felt strongly, all across Northern Europe & Great Britain today. 

Viking Culture & Berserkers

For many people, the word “Viking” inspires imagery of ferocious men wearing animal skins, tearing down their opponents with ease. Unfortunately, this imagery does not depict the average Scandinavian soldier with accuracy. However, it is much closer to a group of specialised warriors that we now call berserkers. 

So who actually were the berserkers? Among historians, the answer to this question is contested. With that said, most evidence suggests that they would have been unique to the elite in society, handpicked by Jarls, who were the rulers of Ancient Scandinavian communities. 

It was originally believed that the word berserker came from the Norse words “bare” and “sark”, meaning “bare-chested”. This belief comes from Ynglingsaga (pronounced ing-ling-saga), A book written by the historian poet Snorri Sturluson. In 1225, Snorri wrote, “they went without coats of mail, and acted like mad dogs and wolves…” Indicating that they fought in battle with no armour protecting their chest and behaved as animals.

English and old Norse experience the same issue: bare and bear are spelt and pronounced very similarly. As such, today’s more accepted theory is that it actually means “bear on chest”, as in, they wore bearskins upon their chests. It was not uncommon for more wealthy Scandanavians to wear bear furs. Multiple old Scandinavian texts refer to berserkers as “Ulfheddin” (pronounced ulf-hye-dinn), which translates to “a warrior wearing wolf skin.” so it is safe to assume they would have worn bearskins if possible too.

Evidence to suggest their high standing in society comes from a french poet named Chretien De Troyes, who wrote a famous poem in 1176 called “Yvain, the Knight of the Lion”. The Norwegian king, Hákon Hákonarson, had this poem translated in the thirteenth century. In this translated version the French word for champion had become “berserker”. In this context, the “champion” was a high ranking warrior explicitly chosen by the king.       

Historians have spent centuries finding clues, slowly piecing together how Vikings truly lived. Today there are many misconceptions around ancient Norse culture. Separating the facts from the fiction is key if we’re going to have a more genuine understanding of this fascinating and ancient culture. 

Brief Viking History & Geography

Viking’s lived in northern Europe, in the areas that are now Sweden, Denmark & Norway. They were primarily active from the 8th to the 11th century. It’s important to recognise that not all people who lived in these areas were Vikings. 

So, not every Scandanavian was a Viking, but every Viking was a Scandanavian. The word Viking is almost like a job title; such a title belongs to the seafaring warriors who travelled long distances, raiding and colonising vast areas of Europe on their travels. Raids across the British Isles were common. So much so that they even established some of the biggest cities in Ireland. Dublin, Cork and Limerick were all founded by Viking settlers. 

Much of Scotland belonged to the Vikings, as well as several Northern territories of England. In 866, a Viking Warband, lead by Ivar the Boneless, captured the city of Eoforwik (pronounced ee-for-wick), made it their capital and changed the name to Jorvik. Today the city is known as York. 

Their expansion hit many coastlines of mainland Europe too. France’s northern coast was raided brutally, especially around Normandy. One hundred and fifty years of burning, pillaging and looting left Normandy severely weakened. Vikings loved to raid monasteries full of valuable loot, and the only people defending these treasures were helpless monks. 

Now, just because these raiders enjoyed easy prey, it does not mean that they were something to be trifled with. They crafted great longships with advanced designs that could quickly travel up and along rivers. Their tactics were clever. The soldiers were fearless. In fact, their fearlessness came from their spiritual beliefs. The Vikings were initially pagan, believing in many gods belonging to the Norse pantheon. If a warrior were to die in battle, they would be promised eternal glory in the great mead halls of Valhalla. 

With the promise of everlasting bliss, a Viking welcomed battle, and as such, they were fearsome opponents. 

And the most elite of these soldiers were the Berserkers …. 

Understanding Details Of Berserkers & Setting up Henbane Reveal

Berserkers are shrouded in mystery. How is it that so little is known about such prestigious people? Well, as Christianity became the dominant religion, many remnants of ancient Scandanavian culture were destroyed. Christianity slowly grew in Scandinavia during the 12th century. Several Christian settlements, known as dioceses, were created across Northern Europe. These dioceses were areas that were under the control of a Christian bishop. In Denmark, 1104 CE, Christians established the first diocese in Scandanavia. Then in 1151, almost 50 years later, another diocese was created in Norway. Finally, the touch of Christianity reached Sweden in 1164. 

As Christianity grew, so did pagan persecution. Paganism was considered blasphemous by Christians during the middle ages. Unfortunately for Norse historians, this means a lot of valuable information was lost during the religious shift towards Christianity.

So why is this Important to Berserkers? Well, it means it’s hard to say with absolute certainty how they lived. This is why there are so many theories about them. Let’s start with the information that we do have from surviving historical texts:

Egils saga is a book written by an Icelandic poet named Egil Skallagrimsson. An excerpt from his book reads: 

• “What people say about those who go into berserk fits is this: that as long as they’re in the frenzy they’re so strong that nothing is too much for them, but as soon as they’re out of it they become much weaker than normal.”

While it is very likely that the stories shared by the Norsemen are exaggerated, there must be some elements of truth. Throughout all the ancient stories, there are several consistencies that we think we can now explain.

The berserkers were said to go into a trance-like state, called berserkergang. It is said that during berserkergang, the men would be capable of incredible feats of strength, far beyond what ordinary men can do. It began with bodily shivering and cold chills. The men’s faces would grow red as they became more and more agitated. Eventually, the agitation would develop into a full-blown rage! During this fury, the Berserkers were resistant to fire and blades, and they would howl like wild animals and bite the edges of their shields. During this immense anger, the berserkers would cut down swathes of men with ease, often with such madness that they could not even tell friend from foe. As written by Egil Skallagrimsson and many others, the rage would be followed by days of weakness, often requiring bed rest.

This twelfth-century chess piece carved from walrus ivory was discovered, showing a berserker Viking gnawing on his shield. There is pretty clear evidence for berserkergang, and now we know a bit more about Vikings; let me tell you why I think Samuel Odman was wrong in his assumption that the berserkers were consuming Amanita Muscara to induce berserkergang. 

Original Mushroom Theory vs Henbane

Amanita Muscara is the famous mushroom with a red cap dotted in white flecks.It is prevalent in folklore, often associated with spells, curses and rituals. It can induce psychedelic effects in those who consume it, although it is also toxic. In the 1700s (which is when Odman proposed his theory), much less was understood about the berserkers. With that in mind, let’s take a look at what happens when Amanita Muscara is consumed; it becomes clear that the results would not be desirable for a warrior on the battlefield. 

Vomiting, diarrhoea, sweating, dizziness and trembling are all possible effects of the mushroom. I find it unlikely that a warrior suffering from these problems would be as terrifying as described. Although there have been some reports of rage from its consumption, it is not particularly common. 

A much more likely candidate is the flowering plant called Henbane. 

Henbane, also known as hogs-bean and stinking nightshade, is a hardy tall-growing plant with an ominous-looking flower. Dark vascular markings riddle its dull yellow petals, which converge in the flower’s centre, creating a dark purple core. 

Much like Amanita Muscara, it is also frequently mentioned in European folklore, especially in the context of witches and dark magic. The plant originated in the Mediterranean and Balkan regions, but there is evidence to suggest that it was present in Scandanavia by the Roman iron age, around 300 CE.

Henbane Properties

The plant has a long history of medicinal and mystical uses across Europe and Asia. In 1398 a man, known as Bartholemew the Englishman, wrote an encyclopedia. Bartholomew named it “compendium De proprietatibus (prop-riya-tat-ibus) rerum”, which translates to “On The Properties of Things”. In this book, there is an excerpt referring to henbane’s properties. He writes:

“This herb is called insana wood, for the use thereof is perilous; for if it be eaten or drank, it breedeth wodness or slow likeness of sleep, therefore the herb is commonly called Morilindi, for it taketh away want of reason.”

Interestingly,  “wodness” is an old English word for madness; it comes from the Norse god “Wodin”, now known as Odin. Odin was closely associated with Storm Fury. It is clear from this quote that people living in the middle ages were fearful of the herb. Across Europe, much of the folklore surrounding henbane is to do with dark spells laying ruin to crops and livestock. 

Given its connotations with darkness, madness and curses in western Europe, it is interesting that in ancient Greece, it was treated almost entirely as a medicinal plant. If we look back to the quote from Bartholomew the English, he does also say it can bring about “likeness of sleep”. This likeness of sleep refers to henbane’s anaesthetic properties. It can dull pain and even bring about sleep in high enough doses. The ancient Greeks used henbane as an anaesthetic when performing minor surgeries or to dull pain for those suffering from ailments. 

There are many old records, stories and suspicions around how henbane has been used over the centuries. But what do we know about it today? Is it still used? Well, yes! Henbane’s scientific name is Hyoscyamus niger (Hye-oh-cye-amus nye-jerr). It is recognised as a traditional medicine across eastern Europe and Asia, and although it’s native to Europe, it has become increasingly rare, especially in the north. Today it is classified as “endangered” on the IUCN red list. 

Modern medicine recognises the plant as a potent psychoactive because of three medicinal alkaloids that are found in its leaves and stem. It’s used most frequently in India. Atropine (atro-peen), hyoscyamine (hiyo-cye-meen), and scopolamine (skuh-pol-o-meen) are all distilled out of the plant and used to create pharmaceuticals. In more casual settings, the leaves can be dried and smoked or infused with beverages to create psychedelic effects. However, I do not recommend using henbane as a drug. Its hallucinogenic effects are very unpleasant, and an incorrect dosage can lead to nasty side effects and even death.

As with many chemically active plants, traditional medicine claims henbane can remedy a vast range of ailments. Some of its uses in eastern medicine include bone problems, rheumatism, toothache, asthma, coughs, nervous diseases, and stomach pain. There is very little scientific evidence to support these claims, and modern western medicine avoids its use entirely; in fact, it is even illegal to cultivate and sell in Europe and America due to its dangerous psychoactive properties. 

Let’s look at what effects we know it has on people today: In smaller quantities, common effects when the plant is drunk, smoked or eaten include hallucinations, dilated pupils, restlessness, and flushed skin, but in larger amounts, it can cause more vivid hallucinations, delirium, manic episodes, both drowsiness and restlessness and in high enough quantities, it can even cause death. 

After hearing about these effects, it’s unsurprising that during the middle ages, the common person believed this plant was evil, used in dark rituals by sorcerers and witches. But with such risky side effects, why would berserkers consume this plant? Well, I imagine they would be experienced with its impact and would likely understand appropriate dosages too. Suppose I am correct that the plant was consumed during pre-battle rituals and ceremonies. In that case, a priest or priestess would likely give each berserker an adequate dose to bring out the effects that would be advantageous in battle while minimising the adverse side effects.  

Applying Henbane Properties to Berserkers

It’s all starting to become more apparent that henbane is a likely candidate for a plant that could bring about Berserkergang. We can break down each of the famous qualities of mighty berserkers and see how they fit in with the herb. 

The first quality is, of course, the unbridled fury. Old quotes and modern medicine show that smoking or consuming henbane can lead to fits of rage, which leads directly to the Berserkers inability to determine friend from foe. Henbane induced madness can result in “face-blindness”. Face-blindness removes a person’s ability to recognise who they are looking at. If a mighty raging warrior also loses the ability to recognise his battle companions, It’s not surprising that Berserkers would end up cutting down their own men.

As for tales of superhuman Strength, there isn’t really any scientific reason why Berserkers would gain strength. Such claims are likely due to Norsemen exaggerating old stories. There is, however, a point to be made that a man fighting with pure anger and reckless abandon is expected to use as much of their strength as possible. This could definitely give the impression that they are beyond normal strength. 

In the old stories, there is repeated reference to the Berserkers resistance to fire and blades. Now, the Greeks were using henbane as an anaesthetic directly for centuries. It makes perfect sense that the Berserkers would be able to shrug off wounds with anaesthetic and adrenaline pumping through their blood. Some people also say that because the chemicals in henbane lower blood pressure and slow blood flow, that could contribute to their resilience and reduced blood loss. In truth it is unlikely that this would come into effect since, to be noticeable, it would require a dose large enough to put someone to sleep.     

Chattering, twitching and bizarre behaviours such as biting shields are all common effects of drug-induced anxiety. The heat before a fight would be incredibly intense, especially as the Berserkers begin to feel the potency of the herb. After the Berserkers had raged their way through battle, they’re said to become incredibly weak, as mentioned in Egils Saga, among others. This fits perfectly with henbane’s effects, which can cause someone to become enfeebled and feverish for up to three days after its consumption. 

Berserkers were considered shock troops, the people who charge in, break lines, and scatter the enemy, clearing the way for the army’s main body. These elite warriors would have taken their obligation seriously. I imagine the consuming of henbane was ritualistic in nature, an honour and a privilege in dangerous situations. But how did they actually ingest the plant? While there’s little evidence describing how they took the plant, it’s fairly easy to theorise based on what we already know. Today its most common methods of consumption are through smoking its dried leaves or infusing the plant in some kind of drink. Both of these methods are possible during the Viking era. Scandinavians were known to smoke the plant angelica through pipes, and it’s equally likely that the herb could be infused in hot water to make a tea or even in alcohol which could create additional wild effects. If the Berserkers consumed the herb in rituals, leaves could even be placed on fires, to create an atmosphere of madness for all those nearby.

Origin of Theory 

This henbane hypothesis has opened an excellent discussion among historians, and every development has been fascinating. But where does this idea even come from? Well, as we know, Berserkers were typically high ranking in society, chosen by cultural leaders. As such, it is safe to assume that henbane was treated with high respect too. In Hobro of Denmark, archaeologists found a number of graves at the ring castle of Fyrkat, an old Viking settlement. In total, 30 graves were excavated, and one of them belonged to a high-status priestess. She was buried with several important accessories, including a pouch containing henbane seeds. It is likely that the priestess would have distributed these seeds among the Berserkers, the warriors of Odin, during rituals before battle. 

While Samual Odman indeed proposed an exciting idea that Amanita Muscara was used to induce Berserkergang, there is just not enough evidence for it. Henbane is a highly prolific plant that was easy to find and cultivate. Amanita Muscara, on the other hand, is only found scarcely, out in the woods. It is very hard to grow yourself due to its complex biology. 

Understanding the effects and potency of the Henbane we could go further on to speculate about some of the most notorious written accounts and stories portraying Berserkers.

Arguably the most iconic event involving a Berserker comes from the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25th of September 1066 between the English army of King Harold Godwinson and an invading Norwegian force led by King Harald Hardrada.

The death of King Edward the Confessor of England in January 1066 had triggered a succession struggle in which a variety of contenders from across north-western Europe fought for the English throne. These claimants included the King of Norway, Harald Hardrada. According to sources, the Norwegians assembled a fleet of 300 ships to invade England with anywhere from 7000 to 11’000 thousand men in their ranks; but it was the might of one legendary Berserker that would truly make the story. 

According to The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Upon arriving at the location The English army was delayed by the need to pass through a choke-point; a bridge that they had to cross in order to face the Norwegians. Their advance however was halted by a Norse axeman who blocked their way and single-handedly held up the entire English army who must have numbered in their thousands. 

It is written that he may have cut down as many as 40 Englishmen and was defeated only when an English soldier floated under the bridge in a half-barrel and thrust his spear through the planks in the bridge, mortally wounding him. 

Thanks to the heroic efforts of this Berserker and quite possibly a large dose of Henbane magic and alcohol;

time was bought for the Norwegians to prepare for battle and regroup as the arrival of the English had caught them by surprise. 

Despite the efforts, the Norwegians were mostly slaughtered and the invasion failed. 

And The Battle of Stamford Bridge has traditionally been presented as symbolizing the end of the Viking Age. 

Of course whether or not there really was a single man holding up the bridge, a retinue or not is a matter very much disputed by historians but it is a very  interesting and a specific account. 

The History of going Berserk however long predates Vikings and written accounts of Berserker-like behaviour can technically be found in many traditions around the world and seems to transcend culture. 

Found in the Ranks of the Aztec warriors known as the quachi  

Assirians 

The Celts 

And even in modern times during world war 2 such as Japanese Banzai charges. 

But whether all half-naked warriors of ancient times roused themselves to fighting madness and consumed psychoactive substances to go to battle is largely unknown.

And it is perhaps for this reason that the Viking and Germanic Berserkers have been most fondly remembered in popular culture. 

Thanks to the Henbane and probably a prolific consumption of alcohol they really may have believed and to a certain extent really became animals, leaving behind a thick history of legends and popular culture! 

And It’s incredible discoveries like the one at Fyrkat that unlock new information and tools that we can use to help solve the mysteries of ancient civilizations. It’s amazing that we are learning so much about people that have always been so shrouded in mystery.

Now, check out some of these Relief maps that I have recently designed; Go to GeoPerspective.org Decorate your room with one of my unique maps and support the creation of more videos just like these. 

Patrons are also most welcome and will be able to download free wallpapers once they sign up. 

Now have a guess where this, leave a comment for the algorithm and I will see you in my next video

Almost smack in the middle of this cluster is the island and city of Cebu. 

Its 2021 population is estimated to be just short of 1 million people, making it the 3rd most populous city in the Philippines, after Davao city some 406 kilometers south east  and Manila 570 kilometers north west.

It is one of the main Philippines’ shipping ports and is home to about 80% of the country’s domestic shipping companies making it the 2nd largest economic center in the country. 

Historically, it also happens to be the first settlement established by the Spanish in the region and as a result it is the oldest city in the country which also means that it is considered by many to be the birthplace of Christinaity in the Far East. 

Unsurprisingly this arrival of Spanish settlers also created conflict and it was right here on Mactan Island just beside where the modern city of Cebu lies that arguably the most triumphant moment of early Philippino history occurred creating the legend known as Lapu Lapu.

So let’s talk about, what were the pivotal moments of this region’s recorded history? How was it affected by the arrival of the Spanish empire? And how has Cebu evolved to become one of the most important economic centers in the Philippines? 

PRE HISTORY

In truth history of the earliest tribes living in the Philippines isn’t that well known 

Prior to the arrival of the Spanish. 

Simply because little was written down.

What we do know largely comes from other Asian cultures who were their trade partners and settled there themselves.

Starting with  the period of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire, when Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia and reached as far as the Philippines leding to the establishment of Indianized kingdoms

The date inscribed in the oldest Philippine document found so far, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, is from 900 AD

terms and titles seen on this document show that the culture and society of Manila Bay was that of a Hindu and Old Malay mix, similar to the cultures of Java, Malaysia and Sumatra at the time.

So evidence shows that during this period Cebu Island would have been largely occupied with people of Malay origin who practiced pagan and Islamic religions. 

The city had different names such as ‘Zebu’, ‘Zubu’, ‘Sebu’, ‘Sugbu’, and Sibuy and it was one of the earliest real settlements to have sprung up in the Philippines. 

It is unknown exactly when The Rajahnate of Cebu was formed. It was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise known as Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Hindu Chola dynasty from Sumatra–Indonesia. 

Lumay was sent by the maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces to subdue the local kingdoms but he rebelled and established his own independent Rajahnate instead.

So prior to the arrival of the Spanish Cebu was an Indianized Rajaa monarchical society

Similar to that found in Sumatra. 

It is commonly argued that there was little evidence that the archipelago experienced much violence or competition amongst its tribes prior to the 14th century. This is In order to create a narrative aimed at the evils of early colonialism.

(Damn colonialism ruining my life)

This narrative is unlikely to be true. It is more likely that participation in warfare was the most public and prestigious act in this prehispanic society giving males the possibility of improving their social status.

Like everywhere else participation in warfare was desirable because of potential rewards: slaves, materials, bounty, and especially validation and prestige. 

By the 1300s, a number of the large coastal settlements had emerged as trading centers, and became the focal points of societal changes. This phase of history can be noted for its highly mobile nature, with barangays transforming from being settlements and turning into fleets and vice versa.

And Participating in land and sea raids was an essential part of duties. These raids, locally known as pangangayaw, were usually regular annual expeditions undertaken by whole communities in a very Viking-like fashion. 

Massive changes to the region began  with European arrival 

While a settlement has existed on the island for many thousands of years the city known as Cebu was officially founded in 1565 by Miguel López de Legazpi with the arrival of Spanish settlers.

And The first recorded visit by Europeans came in the form Ferdinand Magellan‘s expedition which landed in Homonhon Island in March 17 1521. 

This was following Magellan’s insane voyage all the way from Western Spain to the Southern tip of South America and all the way to the Philippines. 

Their goal was of course to find a new shorter trade route to link Europe to Asia. 

So Not long after arriving in the Philippines Magellan was welcomed by the king of Cebu, Rajah Humabon along with his wife and around 700 of their native islanders.

They did not lose any time and started baptising the local population, quickly;  after they gained favour from the King Who according to the story had an ill grandson. Magellan or one of his men was able to cure or help the young boy. 

While it is likely that knowledge of Christinaity had spread deep into the far east  this was certainly the first time in the history of the Philippines that large numbers of natives were evangelised into the church. 

Meaning that Cebu really could have been one of the earliest bastions of Christinaity in East Asia especially since it was able to spread freely without much persecution like in Japan where it was outright forbidden and it didn’t really have much competition from the local beliefs like in modern mindanao where Islam was much more established. 

But back to Magellan, 

So on that same expedition, Magellan and his crew tried to land on Mactan island some 6 kilometers east of Cebu, they were not given the same acceptance there, especially from Lapu-Lapu, the local chieftain. 

LAPU LAPU

When mention is made of the Spanish conquest of the Philipines, the first event that inevitably comes to mind is the battle of Mactan. Every Philipino school child would know of this story and be taught about it in school.

It has been etched into Philipino nationalist consciousness and Lapu Lapu is considered a national hero. 

Instead of a warm welcome the Spaniards were met with a barrage of flying spears, and subsequently ‘The Battle of Mactan’ was fought on April 27, 1521. 

Magellan, was heavily outnumbered with only 100 soldiers or less, fighting Lapu-Lapu head on in typical European fashion utilizing his advanced weaponry. 

Considering that under Lapu Lapu’s command there may have been well over 1,000 warriors this probably at first seems like an obvious foolhardy blunder. 

In reality Magellan by this point in his career was an experienced military leader who had faced similar odds when fighting various tribes in south america including the aztecs. 

Technological and tactically advanced methods of European fighting usually prevailed as they scarred off local resistance Especially due to the European tradition of warfare which emphasized very direct confrontation that usually resulted in many casualties.  

This time they did not and Magellan and most of his soldiers were overwhelmed and killed.

Magellan’s body was never recovered and the remaining members of his expedition returned to Spain. 

Ever since Lapu-Lapu became a National Hero, symbolising the nation’s bravery and capability of resisting foreign invaders.

Today there are two monuments standing close to each other on Mactan Island, one in the name of the first national Philipine hero and one for Magellan, the first bringer of Christinaity. 

Hmm, I think there is definitely a conflict of interest there that might just be too much for some people to handle. 

So the story Spanish colonization continues 

As on April 27th, 1565 as another set of Spanish conquistadors led by Miguel López de Legazpi arrive in Cebu.  

Their goal was to continue the Spanish colonization of Cebu and the rest of the Philippines. 

Rajah Tupas was the chieftain of Cebu at the time and was not as easily swayed.

He was defeated and as a result became the last Rajah of Cebu in the Pre-Hispanic Indianized society of Philippines.

Tupas and Legaspi signed the Treaty of Cebu, which effectively gave Spain control over Cebu.

The Spaniards then constructed fortified settlements, with the main one being called Villa del Santisimo Nombre de Jess.

And also Fort San Pedro, a military fortification in East Cebu City to defend the Spanish settlement from attacks by natives opposed to the colonization.

Agriculture, trade, and commerce flourished in Cebu as it grew and its population increased over the centuries as the Spaniards continued their colonization of the Philippines.

The fragmented and sparsely populated nature of the islands made it easy for Spanish colonization. 

The Spanish brought political unification to most of the Philippine archipelago via the conquest of the various small maritime states.

One of Spain’s objectives in colonization of the Philippines was the conversion of the local population to Roman Catholicism. The work of conversion was not that difficult mostly thanks to the disunity of other organized religions, with the exception for Islam, which was still predominant in the southwest.

Over the centuries Spain never made any profit from overnship of the Philippines. In fact it was a massive burden made worse by wars and famines which it had to fight in the region but it could not withdraw because of a perceived obligation to spread Christianity in East Asia. 

Overall Cebu prospered and new communities began to develop and the economy grew – Spanish colonialism in the Philippines wasn’t actually that bad for the locals who’s standard of living was most definitely improved over the next 3 centuries. 

The governmental and administrative agencies introduced by Spain had considerable effect in welding the Filipinos into one entity. Numerous barangays constantly at war with each other became part of one single united colony. 

The Philippine Revolution

During the 19th century, however, an educated Filipino middle class emerged and with it a desire for Philippine independence. Opposition before 1872 was primarily confined to the Filipino clergy, who resented the Spanish monopoly of power within the Roman Catholic Church.

The real cause of the Philippine revolution was the political maturation and national awakening of its people. This combined with the stirrings of liberalism brought about inevitable conflict. 

And of course propaganda aimed at making Spanish occupation seem as much worse than it really portraying Spain as massively abusive. 

So in 1896, the war for independence against Spanish occupation began, 

when the Spanish authorities discovered the Katipunan, an anti-colonial secret organization. The Katipunan, led by Andrés Bonifacio, began to influence much of the Philippines. 

During a mass gathering in Caloocan, the leaders of the Katipunan organized themselves into a revolutionary government, named the newly established government “Haring Bayang Katagalugan“, and openly declared a nationwide armed revolution.

And On April 3, 1898, the Cebuano revolutionary soldiers  evicted the Spanish forces from the city in the battle of Tres de Abril

As the local revolutionaries led by the Negrense Leon Kilat rose up against the Spanish colonial authorities and took control of the urban center after three days of fighting, this was a month after the Revolt of Cebu began.

Leon Kilat was betrayed and killed by one of his own men. And the rebels ended up withdrawing a few weeks thereafter. 

By June 1898, the island of Luzon, except for Manila and the port of Cavite, was under Filipino control.

The first Filipino flag was again unfurled and the national anthem was played for the first time alongside the establishment of the First Philippine Republic and its revolutionary government. 

This success  wasn’t just attributable to the work of Philipino revolutionaries however as at this time Spain was also at war with Americans who managed a major victory in the Battle of Manila during 

which they blocaded and captured the capital. 

The Philippines would not have its real independence yet however. 

On February 4th, 1899, hostilities between Filipino and American forces began when an American sentry patrolling between Filipino and American lines shot a Filipino soldier. The Filipino forces returned fire, thus igniting a second battle for Manila. 

The Philippines declared war against the United States on June 2, 1899, with Pedro Paterno, President of the Congress of the First Philippine Republic, issuing a Proclamation of War.

So From 1899 to 1902, the war between Filipino revolutionaries and the United States occurred, resulting in the American colonization of the entire country.  

Americans who were in favour of annexation had a variety of motivations: desire for commercial opportunities in Asia, concern that the Filipinos were incapable of self-rule, and fear that if the United States did not take control of the islands, another power (such as Germany or Japan) might do so.

And So with The signing of the Treaty of Paris at the end of the Spanish–American War provided for the cession of Cebu along with the rest of the Philippine islands to the United States.

AMERICAN COLONIAL ERA

Cebu grew and expanded throughout the American colonial era as the Americans improved and established modern public infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, public services, and ports, as well as developing the educational system. In 1936, Cebu, having officially been a town since  its inception  became a city. 

In December 1932, the U.S. Congress started moving towards giving the Philippines independence 

Leading  to the creation and passing of the Tydings–McDuffie Act otherwise known as the Philippine Independence Act, which allowed the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with a ten-year period of peaceful transition to full independence – the date of which was to be on the 4th of July following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the Commonwealth.

And The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic and political independence.

WORLD WAR 2

On December 8th 1941 The Japanese launched their invasion by sea from the Island of Formosa otherwise known as Taiwan and the island of Palau shortly thereafter.

The defending forces significantly outnumbered the Japanese but were a mixed force of non-combat experienced regular, national guard, constabulary and newly-created Commonwealth units.

While The Japanese used their first-line troops, and by concentrating their forces, they swiftly overran most of Luzon during the first month.

Cebu City became an important base for the Japanese during the war, and as a result, it was subjected to aerial bombardment by US forces, resulting in widespread damage.

Prior to the war, Cebu had been the Philippines second-most important industrial center, and it offered the Allies a harbor for future operations against the Japanese. Making it an important strategic target. 

This lead to the Battle of Cebu city

The whole island was garrisoned by a force of between 14,500 and 15,000 Japanese troops.^[3][2] Mainly situated  in Cebu City and on the central east coast. 

Following a preliminary bombardment, the battle began on March 26th 1945, when the Allies launched Operation Victor II.

Under the leadership of Major General William H. Arnold, the force consisted of about 5,000 men who landed on  Talisay Beach, 4 miles (6.4 km) southwest of Cebu City. 

Meeting no Japanese opposition, the U.S. forces nevertheless suffered heavily from mines and booby traps as they crossed the beach as It was the first time in the Philippines campaign that U.S. troops had encountered such weapons.

The troops slowly forced its way off the beach and moved inland against only small pockets of Japanese resistance that were carrying out delaying actions.

The city itself was not that heavily defended as a large part of the Japanese forces had withdrawn to hilly and more defensive terrain in the north of the city. 

During the final stages of the battle, the mountainous parts of Cebu were also bombed and cleared. A series of battles were subsequently fought during this time, the most famous of which is the Battle of Gochan Hill.

In total it took about 2 months to fully liberate Cebu between March and April 1945. 

After the war 

Cebu recovered after the war and grew and developed into a major economic center contributing to the country’s economic growth and development.

Cebus’ success as a sea hub also contributed to its emergence as an air transportation hub. 

During the Vietnam War, the US upgraded Mactan Island’s airstrip to enable it to handle military jets. When the war ended, Cebu was left with the makings of an international class airport which has been expanded since then. 

Cebu became the second most significant metropolitan center in the country, after the capital of Manila.

In just a few years, Cebu was recognized as the Philippines’ main domestic shipping port and home to about 80 percent of the country’s domestic shipping companies.

The City was never rich in any particular resources and isn’t endowed with much arable land. So it had to follow a model that was similar to Singapore and Hong Kong largely relying on trade. 

As is often the case independence from any single crop or resource fosters a flexible economy – one that is not at the mercy of bad weather or iron ore prices for example. Cebuanos have their foot in the door with everything with its progressive and well educated workforce.

Similar to the way that Singapore has demonstrated that a well educated industrious workforce will overcome poor resource endowment in attracting outside capital. 

Of course trade isn’t the only reason why the city has prospered. Tourism is huge in the Philippines and Cebu isn’t an exception here. 

By being  strategically situated in the heart of the Philippine archipelago, Cebu is very close to the country’s biggest tourist spots. It is 50 kilometers away from Bohol’s Chocolate Hills; 55 kilometers from the Lost Horizon of the South, Camotes Islands; 101 kilometers from the country’s Whale Shark Capital, Oslob; 129 kilometers from the Magic Island, Siquijor; 142 kilometers from the first successful marine sanctuary, Apo Island; 229 kilometers from the Ranch Capital, Masbate City; and more. 

It attracts about 2 million tourists every year because of its location, economy, rich culture, pristine beaches, and the availability of diverse food.

Cebu’s business leaders are optimistic about the city’s growth, with the tourism industry leading the way. The attractiveness of Cebu as a tourist and business destination has been credited with helping the local economy, along with the development in the IT business process management and real estate sectors with many multi billion dollar projects to come. 

So in a sense Cebu is a city with an excellent model for growth that other cities in the Philippines should and could follow. 

So there you go, the story of Cebu and a quick overview of the Philippines.

Body

The Great Green Wall of Africa is an attempt at stopping the creeping deforestation moving from Northern to Southern Africa. The wall stretches 8,000 kilometres from Senegal in West Africa to Djibouti in the east of Africa. The wall is 15 kilometres wide thus giving it an area of 120,000 square kilometres. With this area,the wall is just larger than the country of Malawi and just smaller than North Korea as the 98th largest country. It would also trump the Great barrier reef to become the largest living structure on the planet.

And speaking of Trump, the Great Green Wall would definitely make the ex-US president jealous. But unlike his wall and other walls we’ve known in history, this wall is not built to keep out immigrants, white walkers (clip of white walkers from Game of Thrones), titans (clip of titans from ‘Attack on Titan’), or the rest of the world (clip of Wakanda). This wall is being built to keep the Sahara desert away.

You see, there are three regions in Africa based on physiography and vegetation. There’s the Sahara region in the North of Africa which is characterized by large sand dunes in the Sahara desert, very low vegetation, and low rainfall as well. Then there’s the Savanna region covering most of Southern Africa and as a sharp contrast to the Sahara region, the Savanna is characterized by rainforests and a high rainfall rate.

There is a method to this climatic madness though. You see, smack in the middle of the Savanna and the Sahara, is the Sahel; a semi-desert region with minimal rainfall and sparse vegetation. So this begs the very important question; “is Africa a hamburger? (comparative picture of the regions and a hamburger)” Anyways, this Sahel is the transitioning of the Savanna into the Sahara. Yeah, you guessed it; the Sahara desert is expanding. The world’s largest hot desert, with around 9.2 million square miles, enough to fit in America and Mexico with space left (clip of America and Mexicos map fitting into the hamburger), and covering over twenty five percent of Africa, is expanding. And it has been growing for quite a while now with scientists reporting that it has been expanding around eight thousand to eleven thousand square kilometres yearly from 1950 to 2015.

In fact, this induced change in climate can be proven by the fact that the Sahara desert was once green. This was discovered by Heinrich Barth in the nineteenth century through cave paintings he saw in Timbuktu. These cave paintings depicted different vegetation, livestock, and therefore, a different way of life, to what he was clearly seeing in the dry land he was currently in. This period dating back 9,000 years ago was called the African Humid Period and signified a period where the Sahara was green.

The implications of this discovery led to the understanding of the fate of the continent if left unchecked (clip describing the desertification of Africa from the North to the South) and the necessity of the wall (picture of the wall as a green line on the African map) like the necessity of lettuce in a burger (picture of a burger with greens). 

The Great Green Wall would pass through eleven countries in the Sahel region including Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. 

The project, spearheaded by the African Union involves the use of trees in a mosaic across the breadth of the continent on the border of the Sahel region. 

Trees being used like the Acacia, are mostly drought resistant and are able to hold gallons of water in their roots. In addition to providing moisture, these trees also provide shade for smaller plants and consequently, help with restoring the vegetation of the region around it.

There is proof of this restoration as Ethiopia is said to have rejuvenated around 15 million hectares of land with 5.5 billion seedlings planted. Nigeria and Senegal have also made significant progress as the wall is now according to them 15 percent completed.

There is still a long way to go in building the wall as billions of dollars are required to complete this massive hack. And even Mr. Beast would have to take the seat on this one. But, it would be a bit reductive to say that all the wall does is grow some grass and tell the desert (clip of Gandalf shouting “thou shall not pass”). Because like Heinrich Barth observed, the land that people live in directly reflects the way they live and vice versa.

The Sahara desert is very dry and has recorded some of the hottest temperatures on earth over fifty degrees Celsius. In fact, most of the areas in North Africa are uninhabited. And over the years, as the desert moved South, people moved with it. 

This lead to the Sahel, much like the middle of a hamburger, becoming a hotbed for several African tribes (picture of tribes in the Sahel as described at 4:24 in this video and 2:51 in this video) as well as the meeting place for Africa’s two major religions – Islam and Christianity (picture of the religious divide in the Sahel as described at 4:22 in this video). This was compounded even further with the formation of colonies and countries during the period of colonization and decolonization.  

As a result the Sahel is one of the most violent regions in the world today.

But, it could get even worse, as more and more migration is occurring in the Sahel region as people search for jobs and a means of livelihood. Meanwhile, this same region is expected to double in size up to 196 million by 2050. And in this same region water bodies serving millions of people are drying up, with the biggest example being Lake Chad which has shrunk down to ten percent of its original size in the past decades.

This is why the Great Green Wall is not only going to help with the growth of vegetation in the Sahel, it is also going to improve the quality of life of its people. This is already happening in countries like Senegal where several villages have seen a growth in job opportunities, as well as reduced migration, while some places have also reported that dry wells have begun to fill up again.

When completed, the wall will accomplish fifteen out of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals, or SDGs, stipulated by the U.N. including food security, fertile land, health and wellbeing, sustainable energy, poverty alleviation, gender equality, and more.

To put it simply, the Great Green Wall of Africa could be the newest Wonder of the World. With the remarkable progress in land rejuvenation, who knows, maybe we could go from stopping the Sahara to rejuvenating it. And for the first time, a wall would not be built to keep out monsters (clips of the walls from Attack on Titan and Game of Thrones), enemies (clip of the wall from Wakanda), or friends (clip of the Berlin wall); this wall would be the first wall, to join a people together.

 THATS THE FUN PART OF THIS STORY that we really should be focusing on because the world needs more trees and green in general to stop the inevitable apocalypse of oncoming suffocation from the privatization of oxygen – you know its happening – just like a water tax – that was something they considered unthinkable in Ireland before it was suddenly introduced it!

But back to the green wall of Africa  – yes enormous amounts of trees have been planted and it has been making a difference but focusing mostly on the trees and stopping the Sahara  is missing the point  – as the Great Green Wall is more complex than  just lettuce in a hamburger. 

Misconception 1: .

While the Sahara does advance on its own. Due to natural climatic cycles caused by the earth tilting along its axis as it orbits the sun.

Most research has confirmed that its greatly exacerbated by human activity.

In other words the growth of population and the necessity to rare more live-stock is essentially what is causing the desert to expand. So the desert itself is not some evil entity that needs to be stopped but rather a real ecosystem and an important part of our planet balancing the  earths climate and contributing to our culture.

Misconception 2:

Desertification cannot simply be halted by planting trees to stop the desert at the outskirts of civilization and those who are managing the initiative in Africa are fully aware of this.

Trees are not the only solution or the way that the wall will be implemented and as such they will likely represent just a part of the Green Wall. The use of water, soil, flora, fauna all need to be considered and implemented where appropriate so its not really going to be a massive wall of trees and due to the massive variability of the climate in the region it really can’t be!

Misconception 3:

That the Sahara is advancing in a straight line all across the African continent -> Desertification is a diffused local phenomena that does not always pose the most severe impact in the regions that border it.

In other words as pointed out in earlier misconception the Sahara is not an evil sea moving down uniformly. In a lot of places there is no spread and in regions with lots of pastoral activity and unchecked agriculture there is.

Misconception 4

That the Great green wall will be planted in sparsely populated areas far away from the main cities and hubs.

In fact: the proposed trajectory is to pass through inhabited regions where agriculture and livestock farming are already fully developed.

Misconception 5

The Green Wall of Africa is the first ever major attempt at halting desertification.

In fact China and Algeria have had their own major infinitives that long pre-date Africa.

In 1978, Chinese authorities —  launched a large‐scale  management programme over a wast area of over 4 000 km long and almost 1 000 km wide.

A simple mistake to make once again is to assume that this green line was meant to stop the Gobi desert – this was not the main goal of the Chinese authorities who were most  mindful of the fact that desertification is linked to vegetation and soil degradation.

In 1989, President Deng Xiaoping named the ‘Great Green Wall’ programme by referencing it to the ancient Great Wall of China, to underline the scope of the work, comparable to the construction of the wonder.

The aim was to sidestep the adverse effects of land degradation that was causing dust storms in Chinese Cities and The government had planned for annual expenditures of 60 billion yuan (USD 8.77billion) for the tree planting campaigns.

The aim of this large‐scale programme was to ensure that 20% of the

overall area would be under forest cover by 2010.

There were however many problems encountered in the field, the biggest of which was that many of the species of trees that they were trying to introduce could do not survive – they learned that variables in climate soil and relief needed to be taken into account.

Since it wasn’t it lead to high tree mortality rate. So the scientists stressed the importance of using local species adapted to the local climates rather than forcing trees which had little chance of long term survival.

Algerian green Barrier

Since the 1970s, Algeria has been involved in a  national so‐called ‘Green Barrier’ intended to halt  desertification along the edge of Northern Sahara.

Initially, it was a civil engineering  pine reforestation programme carried out  by the army on an arid  and a massive pastoral belt. 

The results were however bellow expectation. with a planting success rate of only 42%. In a 20 year long project.

The project was abandoned in the early 1990’s but was relaunched in 1995 with a new strategy in favor of mixed vegetation and crops that would help contribute to the income of the local residents. 

So knowing these facts The Great Green Wall of Africa  was not designed as a wall of trees crossing the Sahara, but rather as a set of multisectoral initiatives and interventions to ensure natural resource conservation and protection with the aim to fighting poverty.

So no, stopping the desert is a lot more complicated than just planting a bunch of trees and Africa isn’t as simple as a hamburger.

and it is perhaps for this reason that it is so time consuming and challenging a task as local governments need to act and implement policies that preserve the soil.

 Its impossible to just go out there overnight plant millions of trees and expect them to miraculously grow and stop desertification as has already been proven by the Chinese and Algerians.

Available studies and research confirm the need to develop an approach that integrates agricultural and pastoral activities, with the aim of preserving the environment and promoting sustainable land development, and combining different forms of  reforestation.

So the Great Green Wall probably isn’t going to be some great wonder – a magnificent wall of trees imposing on the desert as mentioned earlier but if it is implemented it could change the lives of millions of residents of the Sahel.

And it could prevent the current migration crisis – as people will no longer be looking to escape the region if their livelihoods were not threatened.

The necessity of the green wall and major investment into the Sahel becomes most apparent when considering the political stability of the region and its rapidly expanding population.

Now, if you would like to support the growth of this channel please watch another one of my videos next – how about understanding the conflict in Somalia? It has a super friendly comment section!

Video Script bellow:

This is Nunavut

It is Canadas largest territory with a total area of 2,093,190 sq. km. (almost 1 million square miles)

Making up 1/5th of Canada’s total landmass, if it were a country it would be the 14th largest country in the world. Slightly smaller than Saudi Arabia but larger than Mexico. 

The creation of Nunavut resulted in the first major change to Canada’s political map since 1949. as It was officially separated from the Northwest Territories on April 1, 1999.

Its capital and the most populous city is Iqaluit with an official count of 7,740 residents.

The distance between Iqaluit and the Canadian capital of Ottawa is 2,088 kilometers.

This is not a whole lot closer than the capital of Iceland; Reykjavik which is some 2224km east. 

Meanwhile Juneau, the capital of Alaska is 3439km west. 

Nunavut is one of the world’s most remote, sparsely settled regions, with beautiful and unique geographical features.

The total population of the territory is roughly 36 thousand residents.

By comparison, Greenland has approximately the same area and nearly twice the population. 

Nunavut is also home to the world’s northernmost permanently inhabited place, Alert

located on Ellesmere Island 817 kilometers inside the north pole Pole. As of  2016 , the population was reported as 62. Its name describes the original intended purpose of the settlement – the interception of signals that would Alert Canada in the case of an event such as an impending invasion. 

Other major Nunavut settlements include Rankin Inlet, Arviat, Baker Lake, Cambridge Bay, Igloolik, Kugluktuk, Pangnirtung, and Cape Dorset.

Iqaluit is the only settlement large enough to be considered a city and as such the only location that receives free Amazon Prime shipping.

The entire territory of Nunavut has just under 32 km of paved road. To get to communities people use planes, boats, and snowmobiles. Since maintaining roads is completely impractical considering the local climate.

Nunavut, owing to its high latitude has some of the most extreme weather conditions in the world  with bitterly cold winters and cool summers. 

If we consider windchill temperature that is adjusting the temperature according to how quickly you lose heat due to the passage of cold air then Iqaluit might be the coldest inhabited city on earth.  

Even colder than Yakutsk or Norilsk, in Siberia. 

It is of no surprise therefore that most of Nunavut is actually  thundra meaning that the land can only be described as barren, cold, unforgiving and tree less. 

This also means that it is entirely overpopulated in a sense that the land can in no way feed its 36 thousand residents. 

Meaning that food has to be imported leading to exceptionally high prices. 

How about a 63$ fruit tray? 

Or a 

50$ salad

In Nunavut all goods are up to 3 times higher than the average Canadian price which has lead to Nunavut being the most food insecure region in Canada.

This is where the importance of Sea Lift becomes apparent to the long term well being of the residents and the sustainability of its communities; 

Sealift refers to the re-supply of isolated communities with bulky goods. It is the most common delivery method used for the coastal communities due to the lower cost and the larger capacity of ships and barges over aircraft. 

However shipments are only available during the summer months when sea ice has receded. 

As a result every year, the excitement  builds in the weeks leading up to SeaLift’s arrival, as the wait for vehicles, furniture and “fresh” packaged food comes to an end. 

Food prices in May, June and early July, are actually at their cheapest – since most items in the store have expired. 

Almost none of Canada’s Northern communities have any port facilities, in those cases the ships must ground themselves in daring operations that are depicted in the show High Arctic Haulers.

Cargo planes also supply the communities and usually deliver perishable goods with shorter expiry dates however these goods become significantly more expensive 

If shipped via sea lift, a pack of 12 cans of pepsi costs $14.99. However, if shipped via air freight, that same item is going to cost as much as $24.99.  Considering the inflated cost of groceries not receiving goods through Sea Lift can be a massive economical blow to a whole community

This economy of Nunavut is driven by mining, oil, gas, mineral exploration, arts, crafts, hunting, fishing, whaling, tourism, transportation, housing development, military, research, and education.

Overall the outlook for the territory is quite positive and Nunavut is seeing the fastest growth in the nation mostly thanks to investment in mining. 

As for local elections due to the territory’s small population, and the fact that there are only a few hundred voters in each electoral district, the possibility of two candidates finishing in an exact tie is higher than in any Canadian province or territory.

This has actually happened twice already since the creation of the territory. 

In such an event, Nunavut’s practice is to schedule a follow-up election. 

Due to prohibition laws influenced by local and traditional beliefs, Nunavut has a highly regulated alcohol market.

It is the last outpost of prohibition in Canada, and it is often easier to obtain firearms than alcohol.

Every community in Nunavut has slightly differing regulations, but as a whole it is very restrictive.

Because of these laws, a lucrative bootlegging market has appeared estimated to be worth about 10 million $ a year 

Alcohol is believed to be contributing to the territory’s high rates of violence, suicide, and homicide. 

Even though historically liquor prohibition has shown to be ineffective many residents want to ban it completely. 

In 2014, Nunavut’s government decided to move toward legalization. A liquor store opened in Iqaluit, for the first time in 38 years in 2017

So who are these people who want to ban alcohol and make up the majority of the population of nunavut? And where do they come from? 

Of the 36 thousand inhabitants of the territory roughly 84% identify themselves as Inuit. 

The term Inuit refers broadly to the Arctic indigenous population of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Inuit means “people,” and the language they speak is called Inuktitut, though there are regional dialects that are known by slightly different names. 

In the past these communities relied on their natural resources, strong leaders, and innovative tools and skills to adapt to the cold, harsh environments of the Arctic north,

surviving primarily on fish and sea mammals such as seals, whales, caribou, and walruses

According to old sagas the first contact between European people and Inuits happened in the 1350’s when the Vikings settled in Greenland and thereafter in 1576 it was the British explorer Sir Martin Frobisher who traveled into the area east of Baffin Island to search for an open water passage to Asia.

 So that was how the first documented transactions between Inuits and Westerners really occurred.

Other explorers also conducted their search for new lands with little experience and few technologies suited to the harsh environment in which they traveled. 

leading to many disasters and lost expeditions, and many more were marooned for long winters in ships unable to properly navigate the frozen sea. 

The most famous of these explorers is Sir John Franklin, whose entire expedition lost their lives seeking out a passage.

With time however the Canadian arctic was charted and the approach to its exploration became more systematic 

It would not be until 1906, that the dream of a navigable arctic channel was realized by the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen. 

To help in his junrey Amundsen learned skills such as dogsled travel and  the making of fur clothing from the Inuit, which proved invaluable to the success of his voyage.

And Until the Second World War, incoming researchers to the Arctic generally had a good working relationship with the Inuit. 

early scientists were reliant on Inuit to help them survive Arctic conditions and gather important knowledge relating to their studies by living with them and hiring them to help conduct the necessary research. 

Following World War II with the tensions surrounding the Cold War the arctic suddenly took on a strategic importance. 

it became obvious to defence planners that the Arctic would form the front line if another world war broke out. 

It was this development in international relationships that would go on to completely change the lives of the Inuit turning them into geopolitical pawns. 

In August 1953, seven or eight families from Inukjuak, northern Quebec were transported to Grise Fiord on the southern tip of Ellesmere Island and to Resolute on Cornwallis Island

The families were promised better living and hunting opportunities in new communities in the High Arctic.

In reality the islands are extremely barren and some of the most remote points on earth. 

They were joined by three families recruited from the more northern community of Pond Inlet whose purpose was to teach skills for survival in the High Arctic.

The methods of recruitment and the reasons for the relocations have been disputed.

Officially The government stated that the families had agreed to participate in a program to leave areas perceived to be overpopulated with poor hunting conditions in Northern Quebec, in an attempt to reduce their dependence on welfare, and to resume a subsistence lifestyle.

On the other hand  the Inuit reported that the relocations were forced and were motivated by a desire to reinforce Canadian claims to the far northern arctic islands by creating settlements in the area.

Additionally The families were left without sufficient supplies of food, caribou and other materials for making appropriate clothing and tents.

And As they had been moved about 2,000 km to a different ecosystem, they were unfamiliar with the wildlife and had to adjust to the polar day and night cycle that occurs in the far northern latitudes. 

They were however successful in learning the migratory routes of the Beluga whales and managed to adapt. 

In recent years this relocation has come to be perceived as a major inhumane blunder on the part of the Canadian government.  

But there was more going on than just Canada’s colonial ambition to stake its claim over the high arctic island. 

Cambridge Bay with its central location and relative accessibility was made one of the most strategically important places in the North American Arctic defense system.

Nothing changed the lives of Inuinnait more than the Cold War.

The biggest project launched by the American army was the Distant Early Warning Line, a chain of radars that could detect incoming Russian military.  A warning system in case of a soviet air attack. 

The DEW-Line brought hundreds of ships, planes and workers into the Canadian Arctic. 

As well as buildings, steel towers, and all types of construction equipment that soon changed the face of the Arctic.

Inuit were hired to help in the construction of the DEW line. 

As a result, permanent communities started to appear across the arctic. 

The traditional skills of the innuit became less valuable and with the development of the Arctic regions many of the natives forgot their natural abilities to live off the land as they were settled into communities to function as a cohesive local labour force. 

this was especially the case with younger generations of Inuit.  

Who quickly forgot the skills that had been passed on to them from past generations.

They had followed the path towards wage employment and static communities turning their backs on the ancient way of existing 

as a result they also became dependent on the traditional government.  

The American military left in 1963, as their development of the intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) diminished the strategic value of the DEW line. 

While some Inuit managed to find work with the various government agencies that moved in, others had to live from casual employment and social assistance. 

With few jobs available, unemployment persisted as a major problem in Nunavut for decades to come.

And In the 1980’s a claim by the forcefully relocated Inuit descendants was made against the Canadian government.

Eventually in 1989, 40 Inuit were returned to their former communities while others, mostly the younger generation, chose to stay in the high arctic. 

And on 18 August 2010 an official government apology was given to those who were affected. 

This is the context of the Inuit living in arctic Canada of today. Many feel resentment for the exploitation of the Inuits that came with the Cold war and for being forcefully divorced from the land and their traditional ways of living. 

This feeling is somewhat exacerbated by the fact that a lot of well paying jobs in the territory tend to go to Canadians from the South who have been able to access education from outside the region and are lured to Nunavut by the prospect of higher wages. 

Nunavut is a unique place with unique people and challenges.

The Integration of Inuit people into a traditional economy is proving to be a challenge to this day made more difficult by the unique geography of the region and the remoteness of the communities.    

In Nunavut, suicide among Inuit is 10 times higher than the national Canadian suicide rate and In 2019, Nunavut’s suicide rate was reported to be the highest in the world.  

Some of this is certainly attributable to the harsh environment and perhaps even cultural norms found in Innuit tradition but is more likely to be a bi-product from the accidental merging of two completely different cultures. 

A slightly more long term problem for Nunavut and arctic regions in general of course is climate change as temperatures in the arctic is rising much faster than anywhere else in the world. 

This means that the people and the animals inhabiting these regions must learn to adapt to a rapidly changing landscape but of course that is nothing new to the inhabitants of the arctic. 

Going to the arctic is probably my number one wish right now, especially after doing a bunch of videos on different places in the arctic. I’m not sure which arctic to go to though, as a European the Norwegian arctic is by far the most accessible to me especially Svalbard.